invitation to research research techniques at the scientific

1. Invitation to ResearchRESEARCH TECHNIQUES at theSCIENTIFIC/ INTERPRETIVIST BOUNDARYRoger Clarke, Xamax Consultancy, CanberraVisiting Professor, CSIS, Uni of Hong KongVisiting Fellow, Australian National University http://www.anu.edu.au/people/Roger.Clarke/......Res /54-SciInt.pptebs, 16-20 January 2003

3. Field Study – Scientific/Positivist Theory-Driven Theoretical Inferences => Hypotheses Targeted Observation Recording of primarily Quantitative Data Statistical Analysis

4. Field Study – Interpretivist Theory-Agnostic or Theory-Driven Descriptive detail is crucial,and lays the foundation for interpretation Data primarily Qualitative Interpretation may be performed intuitively, or using some form of discipline, e.g. Grounded Theory (Strauss) Critical Theory (Habermas)

5. Questionnaire-Based SurveyThe Traditional, Positivist Model

6. Questionnaire Survey – Positivist Theory-Driven Theoretical Inferences => Hypotheses Questions Mostly Closed-Ended Recording of primarily Quantitative Data Statistical Analysis

7. Quality Tests of Research Method Design Content Validity (all aspects included) Construct Validity (effective operationalisation of the Concepts, i.e. close correspondence between behaviour of the real world and of the measure) Internal ValidityIntegrity of the Relationships among the Concepts (commonly focussing on causal relationships) External ValidityGeneralisability within a Definable Domain ReliabilityAbility to Repeat and Get Similar Results

8. Research Statistics Tabulation (Counts, Percentages) Measures of Central Tendency and of Dispersion / Std Deviation / Variance Association and Correlation Tests for Differences (X 2, t, z) Multivariate: Co-Variance,Regression, Discriminant Analysis Non-Parametric Tests(for non-normal distributions)

9. Measurement BiasSystematic Measurement Error Measurement Bias from: Social Contexte.g. presence of significant others, data sensitivity such as illicit drugs, sex Recording Bias Intrument Bias, e.g. the set of responses available Procedure Bias, e.g. the sequence of questions Response BiasSystematic tendency to respond based on something other than what the researcher intended Non-Response BiasNon-random refusals, e.g. under-reporting of privacy-lovers’ attitudes to privacy Item Non-Response BiasNon-random refusals to individual questions

10. UnreliabilityRandom Measurement Error The Data Source Respondent States (e.g. boredom) Respondent Recall Respondent Comprehension The Context Physical Conditions (e.g. distractions) Social Conditions The Researcher Comprehension Recording Error Premature Data Reduction Researcher Differences The Measure Insensitivity Instrument and Procedure Variation

11. Question DesignFoddy’s TAP Guide Topic – Must be defined, so that each respondent clearly understands what is being talked about Applicability To Each Respondent – Must be established, i.e. respondents should not be asked to give information that they do not have Perspective – The perspective that respondents should adopt when answering the question, must be specified, so that each respondent gives the same kind of answer

12. Questionnaire-Based SurveyThe Symbolic Interactionist View

13. Questionnaire Survey – Interpretivist Theory-Agnostic or Theory-Driven Descriptive detail is crucial,and lays the foundation for interpretation Data primarily Qualitative Questions Mostly Open-Ended Interpretation may be performed intuitively, or using some form of discipline, e.g. Grounded Theory (Strauss) Critical Theory (Habermas)

14. Questionnaire-Based Survey Process Define Objectives Develop Instrument • Define Population Test Instrument • Define Sample-Size • Acquire Sample Distribute Follow Up Analyse Report

15. Interview-Based Survey Similarities to Questionnaire-Based Scientific tends towards structured sequence of carefully-prepared, closed-ended questions Interpretivist is less structured, open-ended questions, with much more interaction Similar approaches to Population, Sampling Frame, Sample

16. Elements of the Interview Process Context, Purpose, Common Language Question-Types: Sequence-Controlled cf. Free-Flowing Unstructured cf. Structured If structured: Closed-Ended cf. Open-Ended Means of Recording Feedback, Clarification, Confirmation

17. Case Study In-Depth Study of a Particular Setting Some Focus, But Reasonably Broad in Scope Multiple Sources => Triangulation Documents • Managers Interviews • Subordinates Observation • Those Affected Integration of Diverse Materials Preferably Longitudinal, not Snapshot or Cross-Sectional; but possibly Retrospective

18. Case Study – Alternative Perspectives Positivist Orientation Theory-Driven Variables Pre-Defined Purposeful Collection Quantitative Data Causality Replicability Interpretivist Orientation Theory-Driven or Not Variables Emerge A Moderate Focus Qualitative Data Understanding Likely Ambiguity

19. Single-Case, Multi-Cases, Mini-Cases Single-Case Must be Deep and Rich Justifiable only ifUnique or Revelatory Multiple-Case Must be Deep and Rich Must Have Enough (4-10?) They Must Be Comparable Mini-Case Studies / Vignettes Achieves Greater Spread for the Same Resources Superficial, with Limited Scope Information Reliability Very Low Possible Value as a Preliminary Study, to provide insight into diversity, and indications of key variables

20. Secondary Researchaka ‘Available Data’ Studies Documents or Data are acquired that were previously captured (probably by someone else, and probably for a different purpose) The Documents or Data are re-analysed Generally, a theoretical framework is used that is different from that originally used