Terrestrial Data Structures

Slide 1:Terrestrial Data Structures

Representing the Earth: From the 3D Globe to the 2D map

Slide 2:Course Content

Part I: Overview Fundamentals of GIS Hands-on Intro to ArcGIS (lab sessions @ 4:00-7:00pm or 7:00-10:00pm) Part II: Principles Terrestrial data structures representing the real world GIS Data Structures representing the world in a computer Data Quality An essential ingredient Part III: Practice Data Input: preparation and integration Data analysis and modeling Data output and application examples Part IV: The Future Future of GIS

Slide 3:Terrestrial Data StructuresPop Quiz or Cocktail Conversation

name the states containing the most northerly, easterly, westerly and southerly points of the US. land area of Canada is about: (a) twice (b) same ( c) halfthat of US? a degree of latitude is (a) slightly longer (b) same ( c) slightly shorter at the poles than at the equator ? Some Light Reading Sobel, Dava Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time London: Fourth Estate, 1996 (paperback 1998) Linklater, Arlo Measuring America Peguin Books, 2002 (a fascinating history of surveying, the Public Land Survey System, measurement and its standardization) Some Light Viewing (movie) The Englishman Who Went Up a Hill and Came Down a Mountain

Slide 4:�the most southerly point in the US

Where am I?

Slide 6:Representing the Earth: Topics

Geoid and Spheroids: modeling the earth Latitude and Longitude: position on the model Datums and Surveying: measuring the model Map Projections: converting the model to 2 dimensions Scale: sizing the model cover under Data Quality

Slide 7:The Shape of the Earth3 concepts

topographic surface the land/air interface complex (rivers, valleys, etc) and difficult to model geoid a continuous surface which is perpendicular at every point to the direction of gravity ---surface to which a plumb line is perpendicular approximates mean sea-level in open ocean without tides, waves or swell �that surface to which the oceans would conform over the entire earth if free to adjust to the combined effect of the earth's mass attraction and the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation.� Burkhard 1959/84 satellite observation (after 1957) showed it to be somewhat irregular �cos of local variations in gravity resulting from the uneven distribution of the earth�s mass. Spheres and spheroids (3-dimensional circle and ellipse) mathematical models used to approximate the geoid and provide the basis for accurate location (horizontal) and elevation (vertical) measurement sphere (3-dimensional circle) with radius of 6,370,997m considered �close enough� for small scale maps (1:5,000,000 and below - e.g. 1:7,500,000) spheroid (3-dimensional ellipse, flattened at the poles) should be used for larger scale maps of 1:1,000,000 or more (e.g. 1:24,000) the issue is, which spheroid?

Slide 8:Relationship of Land Surface to Geoid and Spheroid

ocean Land surface Geoid (undulates due to gravity) Spheroid (math model) mean sea surface (geoid) Perpendicular to Geoid (plumbline) Perpendicular to Spheroid Note that elevation causes distances measured on ground to be greater than on the spheroid. Corrections may be applied. GPS (global positioning system) measures elevation relative to spheroid. Traditional surveying via leveling measures elevation relative to geoid.

Slide 9:Which Spheroid?

Hundreds have been defined depending upon: available measurement technology area of the globe (e.g North America, Africa) map extent (country, continent or global) political issues (e.g Warsaw pact versus NATO) ARC/INFO supports 26 different spheroids! conversions via math. formulae Earth measurements (approx.): equatorial radius: 6,378km 3,963mi polar radius: 6,357km 3,950mi (flattened about 13 miles at poles) Most commonly encountered are: Everest (Sir George) 1830 one of the earliest spheroids; India a=6,377,276m b=6,356,075m f=1/300.8 Clarke 1886 for North America basis for USGS 7.5 Quads a=6,378,206.4m b=6,356,583.8m f=1/295 GRS80 (Geodetic Ref. System, 1980) current North America mapping a=6,378,137m b=6,356,752.31414m f=1/298 Hayford or International (1909/1924) early global choice a=6,378,388 b=6,356,911.9m f= WGS84 (World Geodetic Survey, 1984) current global choice a=6,378,137 b=6,356,752.31m f=

Slide 10:Latitude and Longitude: location on the spheroid

Longitude meridians Prime meridian is zero: Greenwich, U.K. International Date Line is 180� E&W circ.: 40,008km 24,860mi (equator to pole approx. 10,000,000 meters, actually 10,001,965.7 meters ) 1 degree=69.17 mi at Equator 48.99 mi at 45N/S 0 mi at 90N/S length long.=cosine of lat * length of 1� of lat. (1/2 at 60� not 45�) Latitude parallels equator is zero circ.: 40,076km 24,902mi 1 degree=68.71 mi at equator (110,567m.) 69.40 mi at poles (1 mile=1.60934km=5280 feet) 1 nautical mile=length of 1 minute 6080 ft=1853.248m (Admiralty) 6076.115ft=1852m (international) 90� N lat./long coords. for a location will change depending on spheroid chosen! 0� 90� S Equator Prime Meridian Distance between two points on the globe (great circle or spherical distance): Cos d = (sin a sin b) + (cos a cos b cos P) where: d = arc distance a = Latitude of A b = Latitude of B P = degrees of long. A to B (distances based on WGS84 spheroid)

Slide 12:Measuring Latitude

geocentric or authalic latitude (c): angle of vector thru center of ellipsoid geodetic latitude (d): angle of vector perpendicular to ellipsoid surface geodetic latitude is always used. a-- semi-major axis b -- semi-minor axis d c For a sphere, geodetic and geocentric are the same. On authalic sphere used for small scale mapping 1� lat = 1� long = 69.11 miles (both Clark & WGS84) Ellipsoid Because the earth is flatter at the poles, close to poles tangent must �move� further to change by 1 degree, hence 1 degree of lat. is longer at poles than at the equator. tangent f=flattening=a-b a

Slide 14:Geodesy & SurveyingProcess of measuring position (horizontal control) and elevation (vertical control) of points on earth�s surface (spheroid)

Geodetic Surveying: incorporates earth�s shape and curvature used to establish location of survey monuments which provide basis for all measurements. conducted in US by the National Geodetic Service (previously the US Coast and Geodetic Survey) in the Dept. of Commerce. Plane Surveying: assumes earth is flat employed by local surveyors for small geographic area (building site, sub-division, etc.) usually uses survey monuments as starting point. Techniques: all employ �triangulation:� using geometry to impute unknown positions and distances based on certain measured angles or distances between other known locations. earlier techniques based on visual sighting (from starting point, then back to it) using: invar-tape (very small coefficient of expansion) for distance measurement theodolites (or less accurate transits in local surveys) to measure angles for horizontal positioning (also measure vertical angles for elevation) levels and graduated rods for accurate vertical measurement. modern techniques use: laser based instruments to measure distances gps (global positioning system) receivers to establish location and elevation cost one fifth as much as traditional approaches!

Slide 15:Datums:--any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such quantities which serve as a reference or base for other quantities--all horizontal or vertical positions are relative to a specific datum

For the Geodesist (and for GIS) a set of parameters defining a coordinate system, including: the spheroid (earth model) a point of origin and an orientation relative to earth�s axis of rotation (ties spheroid to earth) For the Local Surveyor a set of points whose precise location and /or elevation has been determined, which serve as reference points from which other locations can be determined (horizontal datum) a surface to which elevations are referenced usually �mean sea level� (vertical datum) points usually marked with brass plates called survey markers or monuments whose identification codes and precise locations (usually in lat/long) are published. Unlike with spheroids and map projections, there is not necessarily a math. formulae for conversion between datums, although �equivalency tables� may be available

Slide 16:Original North American Datums

1900 US Standard Datum first nationwide datum Clark 1866 spheroid origin Meades Ranch, Osborne Cnty, KS (39-13-26.686N 98-32-30.506W) determined by visual triangulation approx. 2,500 points renamed North American Datum (NAD) in 1913 when adopted by Mexico and Canada NAD27 Clark 1866 spheroid Meades Ranch origin visual triangulation 25,000 stations (250,000 by 1970) NAVD29 (North American Vertical Datum, 1929) provided elevation basis for most USGS 7.5 minute quads NAD83 satellite (since 1957) and laser distance data showed inaccuracy of NAD27 1971 National Academy of Sciences report recommended new datum used GRS80 spheroid (functionally equivalent to WGS84 altho. not identical) origin: Mass-center of Earth 275,000 stations �Helmert blocking� least squares technique fitted 2.5 million other fed, state and local agency points. NAVD88 provides vertical datum points can differ up to 160m from NAD27, but seldom more than 30m, (and data from a digitized map more inaccurate than datum difference) no mathematical formulae for conversion from NAD27: See USGS Survey Bulletin # 1875 for conversion tables (in ARC/INFO) completed in 1986 therefore called NAD83 (1986)! but new data coming from gps was more accurate!

Slide 17:Current US Datum Programs:National Geodetic Reference System(NGRS)/ National Spatial Reference System(NSRS)

High Accuracy Reference Network (HARN) ( first called HPGN-High Precision GPS Network) NAD83 not �gps-able� inaccessible monuments (hill tops) irregular spacing of monuments get destroyed too many (275,000) to maintain insufficient accuracy for precision work (at 1m or less) 3-Tier Plan federal base network (FBN) ~1,600-2,000 monuments 5-8 mm accuracy (A or B order) evenly spaced 1 degree by 1 degree (75-125 kms); 3 year visitation cycle cooperative base network (CBN-states) ~16,000 monuments 25-30km spacing; B-order accuracy no coop agreement with Texas! user densification network local points connected to FBN/CBN Revision known as NAD83(HARN) Issued on a regional basis from 1989 thru 1997 Differs from NAD83 (1986) by <=1m (horizon.) Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) continuos measurement of location from GPS satellites 500 km spacing DFW site in Arlington run by TXDOT (about 70 in TX as of 2007) posted hourly on the Internet Use for differential GPS, calibrating gps instruments, monitor crustal movement, etc. datum revision know as NAD83 (CORSxx) since several been released (�93, �94, �96, etc) Diff. from NAD83 (HARN) <10cm Reference Lapine, Lewis A. National Geodetic Survey: Its Mission, Vision, and Goals, US Dept of Commerce, NOAA, October, 1994 Snay and Soler Professional Surveyor Dec 1999, Feb 2000

Slide 18:Measuring Elevation

so far focused on horizontal location (�x,y�) vertical location or elevation (z) also important Traditional surveying uses �leveling� to measure elevation relative to mean sea level (MSL) published on standard paper maps based on NAVD1929 or NAVD88 for US MSL is arithmetic mean of hourly water elevations observed over a 19 year cycle MSL is different for different countries or locations NAVD88 based on mean sea level at Rimouski, Quebec, Canada on St Laurence gulf Leveling follows geoid, thus elevations (orthometric height) are relative to geoid GPS (global positioning systems) knows nothing about geoid so its elevations (called ellipsoid height) are relative to a spheroid (usually WGS84) The two may be (and usually are) different�by as much as 87 meters worldwide in Texas ellipsoid heights about 27 meters less (lower) than orthometric (geoid) ht. Spheroid (ellipsoid) above geoid everywhere in US Geoid Orthometric height Spheroid Land surface Ellipsoid height http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID Geoid03 is a gravity model of the geoid for the US and may be used to �correct� GPS elevations (ellipsoid height) to correspond to traditional surveyed heights above geoid (orthometric height) U.S. Geoid height

Slide 20:Measuring Area (reference)

Acre is the standard measurement of land area in the US Originally, the area that could be worked by a team of oxen in a day (approximately!), and varied from state to state in Ben Franklin�s days! Equals 43,560 sq. feet, 4,840 sq. yards, or 10 sq. chains A surveyor�s chain (or Gunter�s Chain) is 66 feet long A rod, pole or perch is 16.5 feet, thus 4 rods equals a chain An acre is 1 chain by 10 chains, or 66 feet by 660 feet 640 acres in a square mile Hectare Standard measurement of land area in metric system Equals 100 meters by 100 meters, or 10,000 square meters 100 hectares in a square kilometer Equivalent to 2.471 acres or 107,639 square feet. For fascinating detail, see A. Linklater, Measuring America Peguin Books, 2002

Slide 21:Map Projections: the concept

A method by which the curved 3D surface of the earth is represented on a flat 2D map surface. a two dimensional representation, using a plane coordinate system, of the earth�s three dimensional sphere/spheroid location on the 3D earth is measured by latitude mad longitude; location on the 2D map is measured by x,y Cartesian coordinates unlike choice of spheroid, choice of map projection does not change a location�s lat/long coords, only its XY coords.

Slide 22:Map Projections:the inevitability of distortion

because we are trying to represent a 3-D sphere on a 2-D plane, distortion is inevitable thus, every two dimensional map is distorted (inaccurate?) with respect to at least one of the following: area shape distance direction We are trying to represent this amount of the earth on this amount of map space.

Slide 23:Map Projections: classification

Property Preserved Equal area projections preserve the area of features (popular in GIS) Conformal projections preserve the shape of small features (good for presentations) , and show local directions (bearings) correctly (useful for coastal navigation!) Equidistant projections preserve distances (scale) to places from one point, or along a one or more lines Scale can never be correct everywhere on any map True direction projections preserve bearings (azimuths) either locally (in which case they are also conformal) or from center of map. Geometric Model Used Planar/Azimuthal/Zenithal: image of spherical globe is projected onto a map plane which is tangent to (touches) globe at single point conical: image of spherical globe is projected onto a cone which touches along one line (tangent) or cuts thru globe along two lines (secant) (usually parallels of latitude) cone is then unfolded to create �flat map� cylindrical: image of spherical globe is projected onto a cylinder which again may be tangent along one line, or secant along two lines again, cylinder is unfolded to create a �flat map� Classified by property preserved or by geometrical model See Apppendix for detail Azimuth: angle between a great circle (line on globe) and a meridian.

Slide 26:Geometric Models and Projection Parameters

Knowing simply the type of projection is usually insufficient in GIS Projections parameters must also be known for any set of projected data These describe the exact transformation used and depend on geometric model Azimuthal The lat/long coordinates for the point of tangency May be Polar (north or south) Equatorial (point on equator) Oblique (any other point) Note that light source may Earth center (gnomonic) Earth opposite (stereographic) Parallel rays (orthographic) Conic Standard Parallel(s) Where cone touches/cuts thru globe One if tangent, two if secant Central meridian Down center of cone Cylindrical Normal: tangent at equator Transverse, therefore must know Central meridian Oblique, therefore must know Great circle Additionally must always know: --origin of axis of coordinate system (�false origin� often used) --measurement units of coordinate system (feet, meters, etc..)

Slide 27:Commonly Encountered Map Projections in GIS

American Polyconic early projection used by USGS; usually only encountered on older maps; replaced by transverse mercator. �Neither conformal nor equivalent, it minimizes distance distortion on large scale maps� (quote from Monmonier: http://www.markmonmonier.com/work6.htm) Albers Conic Equal-Area often used for US base maps showing all of the �lower 48� states standard parallels set at 29 1/2N and 45 1/2N Lambert Conformal Conic often used for US Base map of all 50 states (including Alaska and Hawaii), with standard parallels set at 37N and 65N also for State Base Map series, with standard parallels at 33N and 45N also used in State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) Great circles (shortest distance point to point on globe) are straight lines Transverse Mercator (conformal cylindrical) used in SPCS for States with major N/S extent Basis for Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) systems used for standardized mapping worldwide and for United States National Grid (USNG) Most commonly, for relatively large scale maps, you encounter the last 3 projections, along with the SPCS and UTM projections systems which use them.

Slide 28:Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

first adopted by US Army in 1947 for large scale maps worldwide used from lat. 84�N to 80�S; Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) used for polar areas globe divided into 60 N/S zones, each 6� wide; these are numbered from one to sixty going east from 180th meridian Conformal, and by using transverse form with zones, area distortion significantly reduced each zone divided into 20 E/W bands (or �belts�), each 8� high lettered from the south pole using C thru X (O and I omitted) thus north Texas in �S� belt from 32� (thru Hillsboro) to 40� (Nebraska/Kansas line). These belts of no real relevance for UTM, but important for MGRS and USNG (next slide) the meridian halfway between the two boundary meridians for each zone is designated as the central meridian and a secant cylindrical projection is done for each zone Central meridian for zone 1 is at 177� W Standard meridians (secant projection) are approx.150 km either side of this; scale correct here scale of central meridian reduced by .9996 to minimize scale variation in zone resulting in accuracy variation of approx. 1meter per 2,500 meters coordinate origins are set: For Y: at equator for northern hemisphere; at 10,000,000m S. of equator for southern hemi. For X: at 500,000m west of central meridian thus no negative values within zone, and central meridian is at 500,000m East 40N KS/NE line Dallas is in 14S Definitive documentation: http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/publications/tm8358.2/TM8358_2.pdf

Slide 29:UTM and SPCS Zones

Slide 32:Military Grid Reference System (MGRS& United States National Grid (USNG)

MGRS developed initially by US military and then adopted by the FGDC (Federal Geographic Data Committee) as the USNG formal standard in 2001 (FGDC-STD-011-2001) Consequently MGRS and USNG are the same within the US Goals is to provide standard coordinate based �address locator� applicable to both analog and digital maps, supporting Disaster response Location based services (where is closest MacDonalds?) Based on UTM. Each primary UTM Grid Zone Designation (GZD) (the 6 � long. by 8 � lat. areas) identified by a number/letter combination (e.g 14S for north Texas, 18S for central east coast of US) Each GZD divided into 100,000 meter by 1000,000 meter (100km x 100km) squares each identified by two letters (QB for DFW, UJ for Washington, D.C.) Within each 100,000-meter-square, points locations are based on UTM east/north coordinates Easting (�read across�) and northing (�then go up�) must always have the same number of digits. number of digits used depends on precision requirements Example for Washington monument 18S--locates within the 6 � long. by 8 � lat. zone 18SUJ�locates within a 100km by 100km square 18SUJ20--Locates with a precision of 10 km (within a 10km square) 18SUJ2306 - Locates with a precision of 1 km (uses 2 digits) 18SUJ234064 � Locates with a precision of 100 meters (3 digits�within a city block) 18SUJ23480647 - Locates with a precision of 10 meters (4 digits�a single house) 18SUJ2348306479 - Locates with a precision of 1 meter (5 digits�a parked vehicle) Founders Bldg UTD: 14S QB 10316 52184 (1 meter precision) for more info: http://www.fgdc.gov/usng/ http://usgrid.gmu.edu/resources.html

Slide 35:USNG 100km Grid Squares

Source: FGDC-STD-001-2001 United States National Grid

Slide 36:began in 1930s for public works projects; popular with interstate designers. states divided into 1 or more zones (~130 total for US) each zone designed to maintain scale distortion to less than 1 part per 10,000 Texas has 5 zones running E/W: north (5326/4201), north central (5351/4202), Central (5376/4203), south central (5401/4204), south (5426/4205) (datumID/fipsID) Different projections used: transverse mercator (conformal) for States with large N/S extent Lambert conformal conic for rest (incl. Texas) some states use both projections (NY, FL, AK) oblique mercator used for Alaska panhandle each zone also has: unique standard parallels (2 for Lambert) or central meridian (1 for mercator) false coordinate origins which differ between zones, and use feet for NAD27 and meters for NAD83 (1m=39.37 inches exact used for conversion; differs slightly from NBS 1�=2.54cm) scale reduction used to balance scale across entire zone resulting in accuracy variation of approx. 1 per 10,000 thus 4 times more accurate than UTM See Snyder, 1982 USGS Bulletin # 1532, p. 56-63 for details

State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)

Slide 37:Co-ordinate Values for Selected Coordinate Systems Dallas County (NE & SW corners)

-96.52 32.99 long/lat 731,900 3,652,850 UTM 785,000 2,148,400 SPCS meters 2,575,000 7,048,000 SPCS feet 2,300,000 482,000 SPCS ft (NAD27) -97.03 32.56 long/lat 684,800 3,603,800 UTM meters 737,800 2,099,650 SPCS meters 2,420,000 6,888,000 SPCS feet 2,144,200 324,000 SPCS feet (NAD27) UTM zone 14 (NAD83) bounding meridians: 102W & 96W central meridian: 99W false easting: 500,000 m false northing: 0 SPCS (5351) NAD27 NAD83 spheroid Clarke 1886 GRS80 central meridian: 97.5W 98.5W reference latitude*: 31.67N 31.67N stan. parallel 1: 32.13 32.13 stan. parallel 2: 33.96 33.96 false easting: 2,000,000ft 600,000m false northing: 0 2,000,000m * origin point for coordinates Note: by default AV displays in meters Note: coords derived graphically so feet/meter conversions not exact (1m = 3.281ft) 1 degree of lat approx.= 10,000,000m/90� = 111,111m Meters north of equator easting northing easting northing Coords for NE Corner Coords for SW Corner parameters parameters

Slide 38:Parameters for SPCS in TexasSource: ARCDoc--SPCS, derived from Snyder

State & Zone Name Abbrev. Datum ZONE FIPSZONE Texas, North TX_N 5326 4201 Texas, North Central TX_NC 5351 4202 Texas, Central TX_C 5376 4203 Texas, South Central TX_SC 5401 4204 Texas, South TX_S 5426 4205 State Plane Zones - Lambert Conformal Conic Projection (parameters in degrees, minutes, seconds) Zone 1st Std.Parallel 2nd Std.Parallel CentralMeridian Origin(Latitude) False Easting (m) False Northing(m) NAD83 TX_N 34 39 00 36 11 00 -101 30 00 34 00 00 200000 1000000 TX_NC 32 08 00 33 58 00 -98 30 00 31 40 00 600000 2000000 TX_C 30 07 00 31 53 00 -100 20 00 29 40 00 700000 3000000 TX_SC 28 23 00 30 17 00 -99 00 00 27 50 00 600000 4000000 TX_S 26 10 00 27 50 00 -98 30 00 25 40 00 300000 5000000 TX_N 34 39 00 36 11 00 -101 30 00 34 00 00 609601.21920 0 TX_NC 32 08 00 33 58 00 -97 30 00 31 40 00 609601.21920 0 TX_C 30 07 00 31 53 00 -100 20 00 29 40 00 609601.21920 0 TX_SC 28 23 00 30 17 00 -99 00 00 27 50 00 609601.21920 0 TX_S 26 10 00 27 50 00 -98 30 00 25 40 00 609601.21920 0 NAD27

Slide 39:Texas Statewide Mapping System (TSMS)http://www.tnris.state.tx.us/DigitalData/projections.htm

Mapping System Name: Texas State Mapping System Abbreviation: TSMS Projection: Lambert Conformal Conic Longitude of Origin (central meridian): 100� West (-100) Latitude of Origin: 31� 10� North (31.16) Lower Standard Parallel: 27� 25� (27.416) Upper Standard Parallel: 34� 55� (34.916) False Easting: 1,000,000 meters False Northing: 1,000,000 meters Datum: North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) Unit of Measure: meter This is the standard (set, 1992) for a map covering all of Texas. see: http://www.dir.state.tx.us/tgic/pubs/gis-standards-1992.htm

Slide 40: Texas Map ProjectionsTexas Department of Information Resources, 2001

Conformal Mapping System Name: Texas Centric Mapping System/Lambert Conformal Abbreviation: TCMS/LC Projection: Lambert Conformal Conic Longitude of Origin (central meridian): 100� West (-100) Latitude of Origin: 18� North (18) Lower Standard Parallel: 27� 30� (27.5) Upper Standard Parallel: 35� (35.0) False Easting: 1,500,000 meters False Northing: 5,000,000 meters Datum: North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) Unit of Measure: meter Equal Area Mapping System Name: Texas Centric Mapping System/Albers Equal Area Abbreviation: TCMS/AEA Projection: Albers Equal Area Conic Longitude of Origin (central meridian): 100� West (-100) Latitude of Origin: 18� North (18) Lower Standard Parallel: 27� 30� (27.5) Upper Standard Parallel: 35� (35.0) False Easting: 1,500,000 meters False Northing: 6,000,000 meters Datum: North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) Unit of Measure: meter These projections are also used! �The nice thing about standards is that there are so many to choose from.� John Quartermain The Matrix They are all available as defined projections in ArcGIS 9 under State Systems (not the same as State Plane!)

Slide 41:Coordinate Systems: critical required information

To correctly use any set of projected data in GIS, the following critical information (metadata) is required at minimum Datum (required also for data in lat./long coordinates) Projection type (Mercator, Lambert conformal conic, etc.) Projection parameters For conic and cylindrical Central meridian Standard parallel (for tangent) both standard parallels for secant Point of origin for coordinate system(often expressed as false easting & northing) Unit of measurement Feet, meters, etc. For azimuthal Point of contact All this info. should be recorded on every printed map, and stored in metadata for digital files! Note: The term geographic projection often used to refer to data in lat/long units.

Slide 42:Issues to Consider: extent of area to map: city, state, country, world? location: polar, mid-latitude, equatorial? predominant extent of area to map: E-W, N-S, oblique? Rules of thumb Choose a standard for your organization and keep all data that way. Also retain lat/long coords in the GIS database if possible for small areas, projection is less critical and datum is more critical; reverse for large areas check contract; does it specify a required projection? State Plane or UTM often specified for US gov. work. use equal-area projections for thematic or distribution maps, and as a general choice for GIS work use conformal projections in presentations for navigational applications, need true distance or direction. Even though modern GIS systems are sophisticated in their handling of projections, you ignore them at your peril!!!

Choosing a Map Projection }detail in Appendix

Slide 43:The US displayed using a �Geographic Projection�

treats lat/long as X,Y has no desirable properties other than convenience don�t do it! Map of State Plane zones Do not do it!

Slide 44:How ArcGIS Handles Coordinates and Projections

The coordinate reference system of the display view is determined by the first layer opened in the view Geographic (lat/long) Projected (by type and parameters) This may or may not be known As other layers are added, they are: Re-projected �on-the-fly� to that of the view if their reference system and reference system of first layer is known Displayed �as is� (and thus potentially incorrectly) if either is not know (warning issued) If the projection of the first layer was not already recorded, you must select View/Data Frame Properties and either select Coordinate System tab to specify projection of View projection assoc. with entire view, not any one layer Once ArcMAp has been informed of the original projection of the data, you can re-project the view. this applies to the display only. The underlying data files are not changed in any way To change the underlying data files, use ArcCatalog For correct measurement only, you can select General tab Map Units: may be �unknown� when data read in user sets it based on actual units for raw data (e.g decimal degrees) Display units (distance units in AV 3.2): for reporting measurements (e.g. miles) map units must be specified before display units can be set if map units specified incorrectly, distance measures will be wrong!

Slide 45:Summary: Measuring Position on Earth

Land Surface: Geoid: --line of equal gravity --mean sea level with no wind or tides Spheroid: �math model representing geoid� Spheroid+tiepoint=datum Lines of latitude and Longitude --are drawn on the spheroid --establish position on 3-D spheroid Where am I? This guy�s latitude and longitude (and elevation) differ depending on spheroid used. X-Y coordinates --derived via projection from lat/long --represent position on 2-D flat map surface Elevation of land surface may be: --above geoid (traditional surveying) --above spheroid (GPS) Projection

Slide 46:References on Map Projections and Related Topics

Smith, James R. Introduction to Geodesy: The History and Concepts of Modern Geodesy New York, John Wiley, 1997 Yang, Snyder, Tobler Map Projection Transformation: Principles and Applications, Taylor and Frances, 2000 Lev M Bugayevskiy, J. P Snyder Map Projections: A Reference Manual Taylor and Frances, 1995 Snyder, John P. Map Projections--A Working Manual US Geological Survey Professional Paper #1395, 1987 Snyder, John P. Map Projections Used by the US Geological Survey, USGS Bulletin #1532, 2nd. ed., 1983 Melita Kennedy and Steve Kopp. Understanding Map Projections: Redlands, CA, ESRI, Inc, 1994 Maling, D.H. Coordinate Systems and Map Projections, London, George Philip, 1973 Robinson, Arthur H. et. al. Elements of Cartography. New York: John Wiley, 5th ed., 1995 White, C. Albert A History of the Rectangular Survey System Washington, D.C. USGPO, 1982

Slide 47:AppendixProjection Reference Materials

Useful articles on ESRI's Support Site: FAQ: �Where can I find more information about coordinate systems, map projections, and datums? http://support.esri.com/index.cfm?fa=knowledgebase.techarticles.articleShow&d=17420 FAQ: �Projection Basics: What the GIS professional needs to know http://support.esri.com/index.cfm?fa=knowledgebase.techarticles.articleShow&d=23025

Slide 48:Map Projections by Property Preserved:Shape and Area

Conformal (orthomorphic) preserves local shape by using correct angles; local direction also correct lat/long lines intersect at 90 degrees area (and distance) is usually grossly distorted on at least part of the map no projection can preserve shape of larger areas everywhere use for �presentations�; most large scale maps by USGS are conformal examples: mercator, stereographic Equal-Area (Equivalent or homolographic)) area of all displayed features is correct shape, angle, scale or all three distorted to achieve equal area commonly used in GIS because of importance of area measurements use for thematic or distribution maps; examples: Alber�s conic, Lambert�s azimuthal

Slide 49:Map Projections by Property Preserved:Distance and Direction

Equidistant preserves distance (scale) between some points or along some line(s) no map is equidistant (i.e. has correct scale) everywhere on map (i.e. between all points) distances true along one or more lines (e.g. all parallels) or everywhere from one point great circles (shortest distance between two points) appear as straight lines important for long distance navigation examples: sinusoidal, azimuthal True-direction provides correct direction (bearing or azimuth) either locally or relative to center rhumb lines (lines of constant direction) appear as straight lines important for navigation some may also be conformal, equal area, or equidistant examples; mercator (for local direction), azimuthal (relative to a center point)

Slide 50:Map Projections by Geometry Planar/Azimuthal/Zenithal

map plane is tangent to (touches) globe at single point accuracy (shape, area) declines away from this point projection point (�light source�) may be earth center (gnomic): all straight lines are great circles opposite side of globe (stereographic): conformal infinitely distant (orthographic): �looks like a globe� good for polar mappings: parallels appear as circles also for navigation (laying out course): straight lines from tangency point are all great circles (shortest distance on globe).

Slide 51:Map Projections by GeometryConical

map plane is tangent along a line, most commonly a parallel of latitude which is then the map�s standard parallel cone is cut along a meridian, and the meridian opposite the cut is the map�s central meridian alternatively, cone may intersect (secant to) globe, thus there will be two standard parallels distortion increases as move away from the standard parallels (towards poles) good for mid latitude zones with east-west extent (e.g. the US), with polar area left off examples: Alber�s Equal Area Conic, Lambert�s Conic Conformal

Slide 52:Map Projections by GeometryCylindrical

as with conic projection, map plane is either tangent along a single line, or passes through the globe and is thus secant along two lines mercator is most famous cylindrical projection; equator is its line of tangency transverse mercator uses a meridian as its line of tangency oblique cylinders use any great circle lines of tangency or secancy are lines of equidistance (true scale), but other properties vary depending on projection

Slide 53:Best Map Projections by Size of AreaWorld/Hemisphere

World - Conformal MERCATOR, TRANSVERSE, OBLIQUE_MERCATOR World - Equal Area CYLINDRICAL, ECKERTIV, ECKERTVI, FLAT_POLAR_QUARTIC MOLLWEIDE, SINUSOIDAL World - Equidistant: AZIMUTHAL World - straight rhumb line: MERCATOR World - Compromise: MILLER, ROBINSON Hemisphere - Conformal STEREOGRAPHIC, POLAR Hemisphere - Equal Area LAMBERT_AZIMUTHAL Hemisphere - Equidistant AZIMUTHAL Hemisphere - Global look ORTHOGRAPHIC NAMES correspond to ARC/Info commands

Slide 54:Best Map Projections by Size of Area:continent or smaller

E/W along equator MERCATOR (conformal) CYLINDRICAL (equal area) E/W away from Equator LAMBERT (conformal) ALBERS (equal area) North/South TRANSVERSE, UTM (conformal) Oblique region OBLIQUE_MERCATOR (conformal) Equal extent all directions POLAR, STEREOGRAPHIC< UPS (conformal) LAMBERT_AZIMUTHAL (equal area) Straight Great Circle GNOMIC Correct Scale- between points: TWO_POINT_EQIDISTANT Correct Scale- along meridians AZIMUTHAL(polar), EQUIDISTNAT, SIMPLE_CONIC Correct Scale - along parallels POLYCONIC, SINUSOIDAL, BONNE Source: Snyder, 1987 Map Projections - A Working Manual. Workshop Proceedings, 1995 ESRI User Conference, p. 552

Slide 55:How ArcView 3.2 Handles Coordinates and Projections

all themes in a view must be in same coordinate system (lat/long or projected) you must know it�cos ArcView will read raw data and overlay even if projections differ A View can be projected only if original data is in Lat/Long decimal degrees All themes must be in lat/long decimal degrees, and in same datum always try to get data in that format for US �lower 48� states these will range from -125 to -65 (W-E) and 25 to 49 S-N exception for images: if image is projected, and vector data is in decimal degrees, can set view projection to match image projection and data will overlay correctly If raw data in different coord systems, use projection utility external to AV (new in 3.2) to convert to common coord. system View, Properties used to specify projections and related issues projection assoc. with view not a theme Map Units will be �unknown� when data read in user sets it based on actual units for raw data (e.g decimal degrees) Distance units are units in which measurements will be reported (e.g. miles) map units must be specified before distance units can be set if map units specified incorrectly, distance measures will be wrong! To Project a View All data must be in decimal degrees and Map Units should be set to this a variety of projections are available with preset parameters (stan. parallels, etc) Custom check box available if wish to specify own parameters re-specify decimal degrees in Map Units to 'cancel' a projection If data already projected, do not specify projection in AV. View won�t draw! To cancel mistake, select Projections of the World, Type: unknown, then click Zoom to Full Extent icon