Joining Clauses

1. JOININGCLAUSES

2. Commas, semicolons, colons, and dashes can all be used to link two independentclausestoproduceacompoundsentence.Thenatureof the bond determines which of these markers is used. From a Pubrica grammarian's perspective, there are four forms of bonding material— coordinate conjunctions, adverbs, transitional phrases, and punctuation alone—andthe rules are: • IND, coordinate conjunction IND. [A comma precedes the conjunction.] • IND;adverb[,1[Asemicolonprecedestheadverb;acommausually followsthe adverb.]IND; transitionalexpression, • IND.[Asemicolonprecedesthetransitionalexpression;acomma followsthe transitional phrase.] • IND;IND.orIND:IND.orIND—IND.[semicolons,colons,ordashes maydirectly joinIndependent causes.]

3. ThefollowingProofreadingparagraphsexplaintheserulesandprovideexamples.ThefollowingProofreadingparagraphsexplaintheserulesandprovideexamples. When a coordinate conjunction unites separate sentences—and, 6144 for, nor, or, so, yet—the conjunction is preceded by a comma. When both sentences are brief, and there is no risk of readers misinterpreting which componentsare linked bythe conjunction, thecomma may be removed. Ten persons were injured in minor ways, while at least twenty residences along the creek were inundated. Tenpersonswerehurt,butallwerereleasedfromthehospitalbytheendofthenight. Tenpersons werehurt, andtwenty residenceswere destroyed. When an adverb joins two separate sentences (e.g., although, indeed, furthermore, nonetheless, thus, so), a semicolon comes before the adverb. A comma is generally inserted after the adverb; however, when the transitionisnotsudden, andnoemphasisis intended,thecommamay beremovedafterthus orhence.

4. Theprosecutionwillchallengethevideotape'sremoval;nevertheless,courtsseldomoverruletrialjudges onevidentiaryconcerns. The videotape confession is crucial to the prosecution's case; the government's entire case is predicatedonthedefendant'sconfession. Because the videotape is critical to the prosecution's case, the prosecutor is appealing the tape's exclusion.

5. Pitfall:Run-onsentences. Onlyinthe uncommoninstanceofatrioofshortindependentsentenceswiththesame grammaticalsubject He arrived, he saw, and he conquered. Can separate clauses be united only by a comma? [Note, however, that if the series has only two separate sentences, they cannot be connected only by a comma:XHearrivedandsaw.Instead,asemicolonmustseparatethesephrases;Hearrived andsaw.OrHecameandsaw.] Please read the instructions, fill out the form, and return it to the primary office. [Because the "implied person" of an imperative is always "you," there is no subject shift here. A comma is requiredwhentwoclausesareintheseries:X.Fillouttheformafterreadingtheinstructions.]

6. APPENDINGALISTTOANINDEPENDENTCLAUSE Whenanindependentclauseintroducesalist,acolonfollowstheindependentclause Pitfiill:Misuseofthecolonbeforeaseries. As previously stated, the colon begins a series that follows an independent clause. When the initial sentence contains a phrase like "the following," a colon is also used to introduce a series: Scorers mustbringapencil,paper,andatimer. Inallothercases,however,nocolonprecedesthelist. XScorersareaskedtobring:apencil,apad,andastopwatch. XPatientsshould:arriveby10A.m.,checkinatthedesk,andgodirectlytothelaboratory. XTheadvertisingcampaignisaimedatpreteens,adolescents,andyoungadults. Inrarecases,theindependentclauseandthelistmaybereversed: XAglassoficedtea,apeach,andanapple:hislastmealwasspartanandbrief.

7. JOININGDEPENDENTANDINDEPENDENTCLAUSES Adependentclausecannotfunctionasacompletesentenceon itsown, therefore, the capacityof the punctuatortodiscriminatebetweentwo typesofdependent clauses is essentialinconventionalpunctuation. Arestrictiveclauseisnecessaryforthesentence'soverallmeaningbecauseitrestricts themeaningorscopeoftheindependentclause. Anonrestrictive clause is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence asawhole; it mightberemovedwithoutalteringthemeaningofthephrase. Incontrast,whentheindependentphrasebeforethebecausetheclauseisaffirmative, the presence or absence of a comma causes a modest shift in emphasis. A comma emphasizestheclaim,whereasthelackofacommaemphasizesthereason: Because the minutes are only searchable by record number, all citations to committee meetingminutesmustcontainboththefive-digitrecordnumberandthedate. Thethirdtestfindingsareinvalidsincetheprocedurewasnotfollowed.

8. PUNCTUATINGRELATIVECLAUSES Relative clauses are dependent clauses that are headed by a relative pronoun (that, who, which),arelativeadjective(whose),orarelativeadverb(when,where). Clauses and the restrictive-nonrestrictive distinction also apply to them. Here are some limitingrelativeclauseexamples: Dogswiththreelegsrequirespecializedmedicalattention.[Thissectionlimits"dogs"to thosewiththreelegs.] Adults who are functionally illiterate encounter several challenges. [The whom clause limits"adults"tofunctionallyilliterateadults.] She rejected all of his unrealistic recommendations. [This sentence limits "all of his recommendations"tothosethatwereunworkable.]

9. Herearesomeexamplesofnonrestrictiverelativeclauses: Dogs are related to wolves and foxes and are members of the canine family. [Which clause makesastatementapplicabletoalldogs?] Individuals may file their federal tax forms electronically, which are due on April 15. [Which provisionmakesastatementaccurateofallfederaltaxreturnsfiledbyindividuals?] Relativeclausesthatoperateasappositives—thatis,theyrenamethesubjectoraddadditional informationaboutanidentifiablesubject3—arealwaysnonrestrictive.

10. As the example sentences show, commas separate nonrestrictive clauses, but restrictive clauses are not. For example, many usage guidelines advocate using that" to signify a restricted clause and reserving"which"fornonrestrictiveclauses,lestthepresenceorabsenceofacommaistoosubtle anindicationoftherestrictiveornonrestrictivecharacteroftherelativephrase.Compare: Senator Smith is against additional state taxes that would raise the cost of doing business in California.[Thissectionrestricts"newstatetaxes"tothosethatwouldaffectcompanies.] SenatorJonesisopposedtoadditionalstatetaxesthatwouldraisethecostofconducting business in Maine. [The nonrestrictive provision specifies that all additional state taxes "raise the costofconductingbusiness."]

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