MORPHOLOGY

1. UNIT 3 WORDS AND THEIR PARTS: LEXICON AND MORPHOLOGY Unlimitedworld of words Words are tangible Words and theirmeaningfulparts Functions of words

2. What does it mean to know a word? • Using a wordrequires 4 kindsofinformation. • Phonologicalinformation • Semanticinformation • Morphologicalinformation • Syntacticinformation

3. To what do wecall mental lexicon?

4. Whatisimplied in knowing a word? • There are thousands of wordsweusually use throughouttheday, which are actuallyuttered bu otherthousands of human beings. • Thesewordsbecomeanessentialpart of ourlives, sincetheyrepresentwhatwe are, in terms of social status, academicpreparation, environment in whichwedevelop, one’s culture and others’ culture. • Now, thinkaboutthosewordsyouuttermost in a talk to someone in formal and informal contexts?

5. Lexical Categories • Thereis no doubtthateach of ususeddifferentwordswhenwetalk, and so having a full lexical information as well. Whensomeonegives a speech, oronlytakespart of a conventionalconversation, he uses lot of word’scategories, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. • These lexical categories are the so-called “Parts of Speech” weusuallylearn in Grammar.

6. Butitwasnotalwayslikethat, becausewordsbecamepartofpeople’slifesincetheverybeginningofourexistence. Just thinkabouthowmanywordsyouusedtosaywhenyouwere a 5 year-oldkid? • Now, can youtellifthosequantitieshavechangedorremainedthesame? • Absolutelypeople’srepertoireofwordshaveundoubtedlysufferanevolution, and maybethequantityofwordshaveincreasedalongyourlife has passedby.

8. MORPHEMES The meaningfulelements in a word They are twotypes: Bound and free morphemes

9. Morphemes that can stand alone to function as words are called free morphemes. They comprise simple words (i.e. words made up of one free morpheme) and compound words (i.e. words made up of two free morphemes). Examples: Simple words: the, run, on, well Compound words: keyboard, greenhouse, bloodshed, smartphone • Morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word (cannot stand alone) are called bound morphemes. Examples: pre-, dis-, in-, un-, -ful, -able, -ment, -ly, -ise pretest, discontent, intolerable, receive

11. Function of Morphemes Morpheme Free morpheme Bound morpheme Inflectional Lexical Derivational Functional Cats, Wendy’s Run, car, red but, with, the, he Faithful,undo Seegraphicsfrompdfarticle pag.39-40

12. MORPHEMES WHICH ARE SOME CHARACTERISITICS OF MORPHEMES? • They are strictly and systematically linear, itmeanstheyfollow a pattern in orderto be arrangedtocomform a word. • Morphemes can be discontinuous; thenonconcatenativeprocess, alsoknown as “introflection” whilesomewords use an“s”toform plural nouns, there are someotherswhichfollownonconcatenativeprocesssuch as in “foot” and “feet” thisiscalleddiscontinuousmorphology.

13. Basic types of morphological patterns. Concatenative Morphology: two morphemes are ordered one after another i.e. affixation and compounding (segmentation). Non-concatenative Morphology: everything else. An affixation rule also states which types of morphemes may combine: this is the combinatory potential of the affix. Concatenative morphology: two morphemes are order one after another. Affixation: e.g. cat-s, un-happy, wash-ed Compounding: e.g. FIRE + WOOD = FIREWOOD Example: trust-ful, trust-ee, trustworthy

14. Non-concatenative Morphology: everything else Base modifications: the shape of the base is changed without adding segmentable material. • Stress shift in English: díscount (noun); discóunt (verb) • Reduplication: a part of the base or the complete base is copied and attached to the base, e.g. weakening the meaning of an adjective in Malagasy be (‘big’) ; be-be (‘fairly big’) • Conversion: a morphological pattern in which the form of the base remains unaltered. e.g. hammer (noun and verb) Guillou and Fraser (CIS) Morphological patterns

15. BACK FORMATION • Alsocalledback-derivation. • There’s a long linguistic tradition of removing parts of words that look like prefixes and suffixes to come up with “roots” that weren’t there to begin with. • "In many cases of back-formation, a presumed affix is removed which is in fact not truly an affix, as in the following words where the -or, -ar, and -er are not the agentive suffix, but part of the root: orator - -er> orate, lecher + -er> lech, peddler + -er> peddle, escalator + -er> escalate, editor + -er> edit, swindle + -er> swindle, sculptor + -er> sculpt, hawker + -er> hawk. These mistakes are called back-formations. Note that some of them are colloquial or marginal, while others are fully accepted."

16. Back-Formation in Contemporary English • "Back formation continues to make a few contributions to the language. Television has given televise on the model of revise/revision, and donation has given donate on the model of relate/relation. Babysitter and stage manager have given babysit and stage manage for obvious reasons. More remote was the surprising lase from laser (the latter an acronym for 'lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation'), recorded from 1966." (W.F. • Many back-formationsnevergain real legitimacy (e.g.,  *elocute, *enthuse,adolescefromadolescence), some are abortedearly in theirexistence (e.g., *ebullit, *evolute),  and stillothers are ofquestionable vigor (e.g., aggress, attrit, effulge, evanesce, frivol). . . "Still, manyexampleshavesurvivedrespectably."