Morphology

1. Morphology Morphologyis the study of the building blocks of meaning in language. How do languages build words and indicate grammatical relationships between words? Very often, the answer lies in their morphology. a. What are words? →Strings of sounds with particular meanings b. What are the basic building blocks of words? c. How are more complex words built up from their parts? d. How is the meaning of a word related to its parts? e. How are individual words related to other words?

2. words Mental Lexicon (mental dictionary): • Parts of speech • Homonyms, synonyms, antonyms • Content and function words • Words are formed by putting together morphemes. • Languages with fairly simple morphological structure • Languages with a very complex morphological structure, e.g. • Turkish: Namixaridand‘they were not buying’ • Mohawk: Ni-mic-tomi-mak “I’ll give you the money.”

3. Words A. word: a minimal free form that can occur in isolation and/or whose position with respect to neighboring elements is not entirely fixed. The hunterspursued the bear. The bear pursued the hunters. B. /-er/ and /-s/are not words. They cannot occur in isolation and have relatively fixed positions. *erhunts *serhunt

4. Words … cont’d C. simple words:cannot be broken down . THE *T+HE D. complex words:can be broken down. HIMSELF HIM+SELF ; UN+LUCK+Y E. Closed class words:function words, pronouns, conjunctions, determiners F. Open class words:Major lexical items (nouns, verbs, etc.)

5. Morpheme A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has a meaning or a grammatical function. un happy looks looked • A free Morpheme: it is the smallest meaningful unit that cannot be broken up into smaller meaningful units and it can stand alone. • A bound Morpheme are morphemes that cannot stand alone as meaningful units. They are attached to free morphemes such as prefixes or suffixes.

6. Morphology • Morphology is the study of how words are structured and how they are put together from smaller parts. • Morphologists not only identify the different classes of morphemes but also study the patterns that occur in the combination of morphemes in a given language. Consider retake, rewrite , relive ,,,,,, but not *takere , *re-choice, *re-pretty

7. Further morpheme classification • Derivational Morphemes: are morphemes that change the meaning of a word or the part of speech of the word they are attached to. They are prefixes or suffixes in English. happy unhappy quick quickness

8. Further morpheme classification • Inflectional Morphemes: Morphemes that serve a purely grammatical function, provide grammatical information about a word, never creating a new word but only a different form of the same word. They do not change the meaning or part of speech of the word. Looks, bags, playing • Suffixes only occur at the margins of a word and after derivational morphemes.

9. The inflectional suffixes of English • Plural morpheme : boys • Possessive morpheme: the man's car • Present tense third person singular morpheme: he walks • Past tense morpheme: he played • present participle morpheme: going • past participle morpheme: eaten • adjective comparative morpheme: smaller • adjective superlative morpheme: smallest

10. Allomorphs Allomorphs: non-distinctive realizations of a particular morpheme that have the same function. Cats /s/, bags /z/, wishes /Iz/, Walked /t/, robbed / d/, stilted /Id/ Are all allomorphs of the same morpheme. • In some adjectives we form the opposite by adding the prefix /In/ , but this morpheme changes in some words the last sound in it /n/ to the one that follows • in +legal illegal • in + possible impossible • in + responsible irresponsible • in + mature immature

11. Activity 1 A)- Break up each of the following words into its morphemes: excellent biochemistry manliness walked realize brighten encourage incorrect manliness richest universities expectations

12. Activity 2 A)- Underline the base in each of the following words: teacher blacken sufficiently kingdom cheaply plays supermarket misinterpret remarked rehabilitation reconstructions thickeners unidirectional lovelier review

13. Derivation in English • Noun-making suffixes: acy, age, ance, dom, er, hood conspiracy, coinage, hindrance, freedom, brotherhood, leader • Adjective-making suffixes: able, ish, less, ive, some comfortable, devilish, careless, wholesome • Verb-making suffixes: ise, ify, en realise, falsify, shorten • Adverb-making suffixes: -wise clockwise, valuewise • Very productive prefixes: in, im, il, ir, un, dis, mis, non

14. Derivation in Arabic: ‘awzan الأوزان

15. Inflection in English • Plural morpheme : boys • Possessive morpheme: the man's car • Present tense third person singular morpheme: he walks • Past tense morpheme: he played • present participle morpheme: going • past participle morpheme: eaten • adjective comparative morpheme: smaller • adjective superlative morpheme: smallest

16. Inflection in English … cont’d • Noun plural: -en as in ox – oxen • Alternative suffixes plus a consonant or vowel change: child --- children wife ---- wives weep --- wept bring --- brought 3. Vowel change only goose --- geese speak --- spoke 4- no change at all sheep --- sheep , put --- put

17. Inflection in Arabic • Arabic is a highly inflected language • Arabic denotes most syntactic relationships through inflectional affixes, i.e. most verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives are inflected. • Nouns are inflected for number, gender and case mudaresun, mudarresat, madares; mudarres, mudarressah, waladun, waladan, waladin • Verbs also inflect for number and gender and tense

18. Learners’ Inflection-related errors • Formation of the wrong plural (sheeps, wifes) • Wrong past tense of the verb (catchted, choosed) • Wrong form the past participle (cutten, putten) • Dropping the /s/ from the third person present singular verb (she eat , He go ) • Adding /s/0 so modal verbs (He cans , She mays) • Adding the noun plural ending to the verb as well (The boys eats)

19. Word formation Processes in English • Affixation: prefixes and suffixes. • Coinage: Words coined from existing materials to represent new inventions or development, e.g. Kleenex, television, wireless, penicillin, Kodak. • Backformation: involves the use of analogy to create forms that are similar to ones already existent in the language, e.g. gatecrash from gatecrasher pop from popular

20. Word formation Processes in English 4. Blends: involves joining two words by taking parts of the two words and making a new word: smoke + fog ----------------- smog breakfast + lunch ----------- brunch motor + hotel --------------- motel 5- Chipping: cutting the beginning or end of a word. For example, lab -------------------- laboratory dorm------------------ dormitory 6- Acronyms: taking the initial letters of words. For example, UNRWA UNESCO

21. Word formation Processes in Arabic • Carving relates to the shortening of phrases, or extracting one word from two or more words. For example, • Words carved from two other words: Ja`fala(جعفل) from Ja`alani fedaak(جعلني فداك). • Words carved from three words: hay`la(حيعل) from (حي على الفلاح). • Words carved from four word :basmala(بسمل)from (بسم الله ) /صلعم 2- Borrowing: Arabic words borrowed from Greek: Satan(إبليس), octopus(إخطبوط), peacock(طاووس), fountain(نافورة), shirt(قميص), pen (قلم), olivine (زبرجد ), ruby(ياقوت ), tower((برج, and law(قانون).

22. Compounding in English 1- The components of the compounding words. • The first element of a compound can be: a- a noun, e.g. armchair b- an adjective, e.g. blackboard c- a verb, e.g. drawback • The second element of a compounding noun can be: a- a noun, e.g. goldsmith b- a pronoun, e.g. overall c- a verb or verb stem, e.g. smash-and-grab, chimney-sweep d- an adverb, e.g. passer-by, fly-over

23. Compound Nouns • Noun + Noun : manservant , woman doctor • Subject + Verb = sunrise , daybreak • Verb + Object = pick-pocket • Verb + Verb = make-believe • Adjective + noun = fast-food , software • Phrase compound = son-in-law • Subject + object = car cable , chairperson • Subject + complement = blackboard , ashtray

24. Compound Verbs • Noun + verb = sky-dive , carbon-copy • Verb + verb = freeze-dry • Particle + verb = overlook , • Adjective + noun = badmouth • Noun + noun = breath-test • Adverb + verb = downsize , upgrade • Adjective + verb = white-wash , blacklist Compound Adjectives • Verb +object = life-giving , man-eating • Verb + adverbial = airborne , far-fetched • verbless = age-old • Adjective + adjective = bitter-sweet, open-ended Compound Adverbs: off-hand, over-night

25. Types of Compounds • Endocentric: The rightmost element of the compound identifies the class that the meaning of the entire word is related to, e.g. dog food , a fire man , fast food , blackboard • Exocentric: the meaning of the compound does not come from the meaning of its parts, e.g. redhead, egghead, turncoat

26. Types of Compounds 1- Solid or closed Compounds: two usually moderately short words appear together as one, e.g. housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, make up 2- Hyphenated Compounds: two or more words are connected by a hyphen. • Compounds containing affixes such as house-build(er) and a single-mind(ed) (ness), • adjective-adjective compounds: bitter-sweet • verb-verb compounds: freeze-dry • Compounds containing particles: mother-of-pearl ,salt-and-pepper

27. Types of Compounds 3- Open or spaced Compounds involves a newer combination of usually longer words, such as distance learning, lawn tennis.

28. Arabic Compounds 1. Almurrakab Al-Idafi: المركب الإضافي The syntactic relation between the components is of the possessive or genitive , e.g. earthworm دودة الارض يوم الحساب doomsday عجلة القيادة عبدالله steering wheel 2. المركب المزجيfusional compound, e.g. two or more words are fused and become as one حضرموت، بيت لحم 3. المركب الاسناديpredicative compound: The syntactic structure is that of predication , e.g تأبط شرا (he has taken evil under his arm)

29. Arabic Compounds 4. الحروف المركبة compound particles are particles combined with ma which has various meanings ربما (rubba رب + ma ما ) perhaps حيثما (haythu حيث + ma ما ) whenever حالما ، لولا ، كيفما ، ريثما 5. Defective verb compound : They are usually construed with /ma ما/ as their first element. This particle may add the sense of duration or negation to the second element. ما دام ، ما برح ، ما زال ، ما انفك

30. Activities • Divide these words into syllables: Writer blackboard recorder situation distinguish transformational Modernization اهتمام جامعة استقرار معادلة يستلهم كُتُب

31. Activities 1- Try to identify the allomorph of the past participle morpheme in the following words: 1- seen 2- eaten 3- drunk 4- brought 5- studied 6- swum 7- bought 8- understood 9- put