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last time. a short history of artificial intelligence in softwareplanning as a technical problemGPS as a
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2. last time a short history of artificial intelligence in software
planning as a technical problem
GPS as a “solution”: The General Problem Solver by Herbert Simon, Allen Newell, and Clifford
demo of GPS
story generation as a planning problem
TALESPIN as a “solution”
demo of micro-talespin
story understanding as a plan recognition problem
human-computer communication as a problem
ELIZA as a “solution”
demo of ELIZA
3. outline story generation: a non-ai view
a short introduction to ethnomethodology
latour and suchman as ethnomethodologists
using ethnomethodology to re-examine eliza
computers as “evocative objects”
identification and “computer holding power”
comparing old video games with new
4. story generation: a non-ai view
5. johnstone’s “algorithm” “I say to an actress, ‘Make up a story.’
She looks desperate, and says, ‘I can’t think of one.’‘Any story,’ I say. ‘Make up a silly one.’ ‘I can’t,’ she despairs.
‘Suppose I think of one and you guess what it is.’
At once she relaxes, and it’s obvious how very tense she was.
‘I’ve thought of one,’ I say, ‘but I’ll only answer “Yes,” “No,” or “Maybe.”’
She likes this idea and agrees, having no idea that I’m planning to say ‘Yes’ to any question that ends in a vowel, ‘No’ to any question that ends in a consonant, and ‘Maybe’ to any question that ends with the letter ‘Y’.
For example, should she ask me ‘Is it about a horse?’ I’ll answer ‘Yes’ since ‘horse’ ends in an ‘E.’
‘Does the horse have a bad leg?’
‘No.’
‘Does it run away?’
‘Maybe’
She can now invent a story easily, but she doesn’t feel obliged to be ‘creative,’ or ‘sensitive’ or whatever, because she believes the story is my invention. She no longer feels wary, and open to hostile criticism, as of course we all are in this culture whenever we do anything spontaneously.”
Keith Johnstone, Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre (Methuen, 1989)
6. johnstone’s “algorithm” If the last two answers were “No,” then answer “Yes.”
Else, if more than 30 total answers, then answer “Yes.”
Else, if the question ends in vowel, then answer “No.”
Else, if question ends in “Y,” then answer “Maybe.”
Else, answer “Yes.”
7. ethnomethodology: a definition Ethnomethodology simply means the study of the ways in which people make sense of their social world.
Ethnomethodology is a fairly recent sociological perspective, founded by the American sociologist Harold Garfinkel in the early 1960s. The main ideas behind it are set out in his book "Studies in Ethnomethodology" (1967).
(Simon Poore, http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/curric/soc/ethno/intro.htm)
8. ethnomethodology Ethnomethodology differs from other sociological perspectives in one very important respect:
Ethnomethodologists assume that social order is illusory. They believe that social life merely appears to be orderly; in reality it is potentially chaotic. For them social order is constructed in the minds of social actors as society confronts the individual as a series of sense impressions and experiences which she or he must somehow organise into a coherent pattern.
Simon Poore, http://www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/curric/soc/ethno/intro.htm
9. ethnomethodology Q: How do people make sense of the world?
A: They/we use the “documentary method”
Karl Mannheim, “the documentary method”
Garfinkel on Mannheim: “The method consists of treating an actual appearance as ‘the document of,’ as ‘pointing to,’ as ‘standing on behalf of’ a presupposed underlying pattern. The method is recognizable for the everyday necessities of recognizing what a person is ‘talking about’ given that he does not say exactly what he means, or in recognizing such common occurrences and objects as mailmen, friendly gestures, and promises.”
10. questioning the “document” stories from Garfinkel’s students
11. ethnomethodology: practitioners Is Lucy Suchman and ethnomethodologist?
Is Bruno Latour an ethnomethodologist?
12. latour and suchman as ethnomethodologists a different way (compared to artificial intelligence) of thinking about human-machine interaction (and differences or similarities between humans and machines)
bruno latour
“An ‘actor’ in ANT is a semiotic definition – an actant – that is, something that acts or to which activity is granted by others. It implies no special motivation of human individual actors, or of humans in general. An actant can literally be anything provided it is granted to be the source of an action.”
13. latour and suchman as ethnomethodologists a different way (compared to artificial intelligence) of thinking about human-machine interaction (and differences or similarities between humans and machines)
lucy suchman
“The design of the DOCTOR program exploited the natural inclination of people to deploy what Karl Mannheim first termed the documentary method of interpretation to find the sense of actions that are assumed to be purposeful or meaningful...computer-generated responses that might otherwise seem odd were rationalized by users on the grounds that there must be some psychiatric intent behind them, not immediately obvious to the user as “patient,” but sensible nonetheless...”
14. bobrow’s story about eliza
15. software as “evocative object” suchman on turkle
In the Second Self (1984), Sherry Turkle describes the computer as an “evocative object,” one that raises new questions regarding our common sense of the distinction between artifacts and intelligent others. Her studies include and examination of the impact computer-based artifacts on children’s conceptions of the difference between categories such as “alive” versus “not alive,” and “machine” versus “person.”
16. video games as ... video games as “metaphysical machines”
...as “perfect mirrors”
...as “drugs”
...as “contests”
from Sherry Turkle, “Video Games and Computer Holding Power”
17. more than identification “When you play a video game you enter into the world of the programmers who made it. You have to do more than identify with a character on the screen. You must act for it. Identification through action has a special kind of hold. Like playing a sport, it puts people into a highly focused, and highly charged state of mind. For many people, what is being pursued in the video game is not just a score, but an altered state.
from Sherry Turkle, “Video Games and Computer Holding Power”
18. identification Identification is known to psycho-analysis as the earliest expression of an emotional tie with another person. It plays a part in the early history of the Oedipus complex. A little boy will exhibit a special interest in his father; he would like to grow like him and be like him, and take his place everywhere. We may say simply that he takes his father as his ideal.
from Sigmund Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego
Cf., Jacques Lacan on “The Mirror Stage,” and writings about identification in film theory by Laura Mulvey, Kaja Silverman, Christian Metz, Stephen Heath, and others
19. evocative objects What is Sherry Turkle referring to when she writes about “evocative objects”?
Melanie Klein, along with Sigmund Freud and W.R.D. Fairbairn, contributed ideas to make up what we now know as object relations. First Freud introduced the idea of object choice, which referred to a child's earliest relationships with his caretakers. Such people were objects of his needs and desires. The relationship with them became internalized mental representations. Subsequently Melanie Klein coined the term part objects, for example the mother's breast, which played an important role in early development and later in psychic disturbances, such as excessive preoccupation with certain body parts or aspects of a person as opposed to the whole person. Finally, Fairbairn and others developed the so-called object relations theory. According to it, the child who did not receive good enough mothering increasingly retreated into an inner world of fantasy objects with whom he tried to satisfy his need for real objects, that was for relationships.
Linda M. Woolf, http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/klein.html
20. video games discussed by turkle space war
pong
asteroids
pac man
joust
adventure
working versions: web.utanet.at/nkehrer/jae.html
history of video games: high score: the illustrated history of electronic games by rusel demaria & johnny wilson (mcgraw-hill, 2002)
21. how did we get from here...
22. ...to here?
23. hot and cool media Telephone is a cool medium, or one of low definition, because the ear is given a meager amount of information. And speech is a cool medium of low definition, because so little is given and so much has to be filled in by the listener. On the other hand, hot media do not leave so much to be filled in or completed by the audience. Hot media are, therefore, low in participation, and cool media are high in participation or completion by the audience. Naturally, therefore, a hot medium ... has very different effects on the user from a cool medium...
Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media, pp. 22-23
24. hot or cool? so, are video games hot or cool media?
25. next time medium as prosthesis
marshall mcluhan
norbert wiener
