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Principles of Computer Design

Principles of Computer Design. Sujata Rao. address. Memory. Processor. data. instructions. I/O. Basic Computer Organisation. 2. 19-9-06. Structure & Function. Structure : The way in which components are interrelated.

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Principles of Computer Design

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  1. Principles of Computer Design Sujata Rao

  2. address Memory Processor data instructions I/O Basic Computer Organisation 2 19-9-06

  3. Structure & Function • Structure : The way in which components are interrelated. • Function: operation of each individual component as part of a structure. 3 19-9-06

  4. address Memory P R O C E S S O R data instructions I/O Structure • Central Processing Unit (CPU) - processor • Controls the operation of the Computer & Performs Processing • Main Memory - Stores Data • I-O - Moves Data between computer & its external environment • System Interconnection • Mechanism that provides communication among CPU, Main Memory & I-O 4 19-9-06

  5. Computer Organisation 5 19-9-06

  6. P C M A R I R M B R I/O A R Execution Unit I/O B R Structures C P U • Control Unit - Controls the operation of the CPU • Arithmetic & Logic Unit - performs data processing functions • Registers - Provides storage internal to the CPU • CPU Interconnections - mechanism that provide communication among CU, ALU & Registers 6 19-9-06

  7. Inside Pentium 4 7 19-9-06

  8. Architecture • Refers to attributes of system visible to a programmer. • Attributes that have direct impact on the logical execution of the program. • Architectural attributes include • instruction set • The no. of bits used to represent a data type • Techniques for addressing the memory. Thus a family of computers may have same architecture but different organisation. 8 19-9-06

  9. Computer Architecture Computer Architecture = Instruction Set Architecture + Machine Organization 9 19-9-06

  10. Processor • Reads in instruction & Data • Writes out data after processing • Uses control signal to control overall operation • Also receives interrupt signal 10 19-9-06

  11. Logic Circuits • Each functional component of the microarchitecture is built up of circuits that make “decisions” based on simple rules • Devices • Finally, each logic circuit is actually built of electronic devices such as CMOS or NMOS or GaAs (etc.) transistors. 11 19-9-06

  12. Read Memory Write 0 N-1 Address Address Internal Data External Data Interrupt Signals Data Internal Data External Data Data Interconnection Structures Read I/O Module Write M Ports 12 19-9-06

  13. Interrupt Signals Address Data Control Signals Read Write C P U Data 13 19-9-06

  14. BUS Interconnection C P U Memory Memory I/O I/O Control Lines Address Lines Data Lines 14 19-9-06

  15. OPERATING SYSTEMS Prof. Sujata Rao Lesson 4

  16. Introduction and Overview • What is an operating system? • How have operating systems evolved? • Why study operating systems? Introduction to Operating Systems

  17. Users Applications Operating System Hardware What is an Operating System? • Not easy to define precisely… • OS:Everything in system that isn’t an application or hardware • OS:Software that converts hardware into a useful form for applications compilersdatabasesword processors CPUmemoryI/O devices

  18. Roles of an OS • Role #1 • Provide standard Library (I.e., abstract resources) • Role #2 • Resource coordinator (I.e., manager)

  19. What is the role of the OS? • Role #1: Provide standard Library (I.e., abstract resources) • What is a resource? • Anything valuable (e.g., CPU, memory, disk) • Advantages of standard library • Allow applications to reuse common facilities • Make different devices look the same • Provide higher-level abstractions • Challenges • What are the correct abstractions? • How much of hardware should be exposed?

  20. What is the role of the OS? • Role #2: Resource coordinator (I.e., manager) • Advantages of resource coordinator • Virtualize resources so multiple users or applications can share • Protect applications from one another • Provide efficient and fair access to resources • Challenges • What are the correct mechanisms? • What are the correct policies?

  21. What Functionality belongs in OS? • No single right answer • Desired functionality depends on outside factors • OS must adapt to both user expectations and technology changes • Change abstractions provided to users • Change algorithms to implement those abstractions • Change low-level implementation to deal with hardware • Current operating systems driven by evolution

  22. History of the OS • Two distinct phases of history • Phase 1: Computers are expensive • Goal: Use computer’s time efficiently • Maximize throughput (I.e., jobs per second) • Maximize utilization (I.e., percentage busy) • Phase 2: Computers are inexpensive • Goal: Use people’s time efficiently • Minimize response time

  23. First commercial systems • 1950s Hardware • Enormous, expensive, and slow • Input/Output: Punch cards and line printers • Goal of OS • Get the hardware working • Single operator/programmer/user runs and debugs interactively • OS Functionality • Standard library only (no sharing or coordination of resources) • Monitor that is always resident; transfer control to programs

  24. First commercial systems • Advantages • Worked and allowed interactive debugging • Problems • Inefficient use of hardware (throughput and utilization)

  25. Batch Processing • Goal of OS: Better throughput and utilization • Batch: Group of jobs submitted together • Operator collects jobs; orders efficiently; runs one at a time • Advantages • Amortize setup costs over many jobs • Operator more skilled at loading tapes • Keep machine busy while programmer thinks • Improves throughput and utilization • Problems • User must wait until batch is done for results • Machine idle when job is reading from cards and writing to printers

  26. Spooling • Hardware • Mechanical I/O devices much slower than CPU • Read 17 cards/sec vs. execute 1000s instructions/sec • Goal of OS • Improve performance by overlapping I/O with CPU execution

  27. Spooling: Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On-Line • Read card punches to disk • Compute (while reading and writing to disk) • Write output from disk to printer • OS Functionality • Buffering and interrupt handling • Problem • Machine idle when job waits for I/O to/from disk

  28. Multiprogrammed Batch Systems • Observation: Spooling provides pool of ready jobs • Goal of OS • Improve performance by always running a job • Keep multiple jobs resident in memory • When job waits for disk I/O, OS switches to another job • OS Functionality • Job scheduling policies • Memory management and protection • Advantage: Improves throughput and utilization • Disadvantage: Machine not interactive

  29. Inexpensive Peripherals • 1960s Hardware • Expensive mainframes, but inexpensive keyboards and monitors • Enables text editors and interactive debuggers • Goal of OS • Improve user’s response time • OS Functionality • Time-sharing: switch between jobs to give appearance of dedicated machine • More complex job scheduling • Concurrency control and synchronization • Advantage • Users easily submit jobs and get immediate feedback

  30. Inexpensive Personal Computers • 1980s Hardware • Entire machine is inexpensive • One dedicated machine per user • Goal of OS • Give user control over machine • OS Functionality • Remove time-sharing of jobs, protection, and virtual memory • Advantages • Simplicity • Works with little main memory • Machine is all your own (performance is predictable) • Disadvantages • No time-sharing or protection between jobs

  31. Inexpensive, Powerful Computers • 1990s+ Hardware • PCs with increasing computation and storage • Users connected to the web • Goal of OS • Allow single user to run several applications simultaneously • Provide security from malicious attacks • Efficiently support web servers • OS Functionality • Add back time-sharing, protection, and virtual memory

  32. Current Systems • Conclusion: OS changes due to both hardware and users • Current trends • Multiprocessors • Networked systems • Virtual machines • OS code base is large • Millions of lines of code • 1000 person-years of work • Code is complex and poorly understood • System outlives any of its builders • System will always contain bugs • Behavior is hard to predict, tuning is done by guessing

  33. OS Components • Kernel: Core components of the OS • Process scheduler • Determines when and for long each process executes • Memory manager • Determines when and how memory is allocated to processes • Decides what to do when main memory is full • File system • Organizes named collections of data in persistent storage • Networking • Enables processes to communicate with one another

  34. Why study Operating Systems? • Build, modify, or administer an operating system • Understand system performance • Behavior of OS impacts entire machine • Challenge to understand large, complex system • Tune workload performance • Apply knowledge across many areas • Computer architecture, programming languages, data structures and algorithms, and performance modeling

  35. End Session

  36. Faster Clock  Shorter Running Time Faster steps do not necessarily mean shorter travel time. 36 19-9-06

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