Metodologia di scrittura

1. Metodologia di scrittura Formulating and Writing

2. The Paper • Project gestation/incubation period • Project design • Writing the thesis

3. The Paper Gestation/incubation period - Before you put pen to paper • Discuss the ideas/approach with others. • Answer the following questions: • What issue am I addressing in the proposed project? • Why is the issue important and interesting? • Would the results of the project have significant impact?

4. Developing a Hypothesis • Should increase understanding of normal biologic processes, diseases, or treatment and prevention • Testable by current methods

5. The Paper - Project formulation Do consider the following.. • Is there a clear hypothesis or question? Or is this a “fishing exercise”? Fishing has to be strongly justified. • Projects solely aimed at creating a database not important.

6. The Application - Project formulation Do consider the following.. • Is the project built on preliminary findings, past findings, your own or of others? • Are there other groups doing the same thing? • What is your competitive edge?

7. Common mistakes in project choice • I like this topic. Should be based on significance, not your interest • Although this is not new, I have been doing this for years Innovation is critical • It was not funded last time because the reviewer was biased/ignorant But maybe not? • This issue has not been studied But can it pass the “so what” test?

8. Common Mistakes • Selecting project • Establishing Hypothesis • Scientific flaws • Setting goals (specific aims) • Showing preliminary data • Developing research plan • Choosing methods

9. Common Mistakes in Developing Research Plan • Descriptive • Too ambitious • No hypothesis • No anticipated results • No alternative plan • Scientific flaws

10. Flaws Hypothesis is wrong Planned studies cannot demonstrate the hypothesis Methods are wrong or obsolete Statistic is poor or wrong

11. Project formulation and design • Do not be too ambitious with what you aim to do, i.e. can you achieve everything proposed in the time?

12. Project design • Think of the loopholes, controls required etc. • Think of contingencies to cope with unexpected results or failure. • Are all the necessary expertise, samples, reagents available? • Line up collaborators, co-investigators if possible (how to choose and manage collaborators…it needs a 6 years course)

13. “Too ambitious” • Huge goals • Establish realistic goal(s) • Vague hypothesis • Develop a testable hypothesis • Unfocused aims • Set reasonable specific aims • Too much work planned • More is not necessarily better • Plan feasible experiments

14. No alternative plan If you anticipate to have some difficulties, you need show an alternative plan • Only for critical issues • Clearly explain your alternative studies • Don’t use too much space

15. The Ideal Project • Hypothesis-driven • Asks important questions • Innovative • To study mechanisms • Realistic and focused • Not too controversial • Feasible in the time frame

16. The Ideal Project • You have track record • You have preliminary data • Statistics!!!

17. Writing your thesis

18. Sequence • The syndrome of the blank screen • Figures, tracings, tables • Methods and Results • Discussion and Introduction • Abstract and Title

19. Osservare Non sottovalutare ciò che colpisce Dare un significato alle osservazioni: inferenze e principi inferenziali La soggettività va valorizzata ed educata: prospettiva disciplinare e orientamento metodologico Farsi venire le idee

20. Title • Max information in least words • The title is an invitation to read the paper • Use catchy titles • State results

21. Writing your thesis Abstract • Short, simple explanation of what the project is about. Understandable by non-specialist • Simple and concise. Clear statement of the hypothesis, objectives and importance of the project

22. Abstract • Is your visiting card • In most cases the only part that is read • State clearly your thesis • Some numbers, but not in excess • Determines if thesis will be read • Avoid acronyms

23. The context • Need stretch of several hours • Avoid distractions: phone, e-mail • Ideas come while writing

24. Devono comparire in titolo ed abstract Suggerire la 'traccia' del lavoro Trasmettere l'originalità del lavoro Agire sul significato intaccando il meno possibile la forma Parole chiave

25. Introduction • Keep it focused • 1. Why the study is interesting (broad) • 2. Why did we do it? (specific) • 3. Hypothesis

26. Writing your thesis Objectives & Significance • Summarise • the objective(s) of the project. • approaches to achieve main objective(s) • These should be clear, logically formulated. • State if: • the project is addressed at clinical or environmental problems of particular local relevance, • the project may lead to downstream application.

27. Dipende dalla visione del mondo di chi ascolta e si fonda su: Dati di fatto Valori Principi inferenziali Metodo La forza dell'argomentazione

28. Writing your thesis Background: • Are you up to date with the literature? • The background should lead clearly to the question(s) to be asked. • State question(s) you wish to ask or hypothesis you wish to test

29. Writing your thesis Background: • Connect concepts • Avoid ‘lateral’ concepts • The difficulty of a ‘straigth’ line • Hyerarchical ‘top down’ flow of concepts • Not too broad • Not too narrow

30. Writing your thesis Background: • Interest the reader! • Put questions • Suspense • Internal connection with discussion • Avoid details • Open issues • Clinical needs

31. Common Mistakes • Presentation: • Poorly organized • Language errors • Show muddled thinking

32. Common Mistakes in Objectives, Background and Significance • Purpose • To demonstrate the significance of the project • To articulate critical issues to be addressed • Provide the rationale for your hypothesis. • Problems: • Not focused, too long • only review the related materials • Too many references • cite only critical papers • Ignored the critical or new reports • Cite recent important references relevant to the hypothesis

33. Methods • Draft can be made while doing the study • Enough information for an experienced investigator to repeat your work • Avoid tiresome detail • Tables preferred to long list of numbers or statistics

34. Methods • Refer to data (Fig. X, Table Y) • Do not repeat numbers in Tables • Include ethics information (with Ethics Committee approval and i.c.) • Include complete statistics section

35. Writing the thesis Research plan and methodology • Have a clear plan of action, logical sequence of experiments to achieve aim. • Avoid ambiguity • For some projects e.g. in Molecular Biology, Clinical studies, some diagram attached may be helpful for the reader to understand vector/experimental design if these are not straightforward.

36. Writing your thesis Research plan and methodology • Sample description is critical! • Number of subjects • Assessments (validated instruments, in line with literature etc.) • Reliability (have you performed interrater reliability?) • Power estimation (Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates)

37. Writing the thesis Research plan and methodology • Not usually necessary to describe methods in detail, unless they are very new approaches. • Clear explanation of rationale of approach is usually sufficient. • Are all controls included? If human samples are involved, have these been collected or will be available?

38. Major findings • Text and or table/graph • One slide for each • Message should be unambiguous

39. Tables and Figures • Do before writing • Exceed 1 sheet: redraw • If small: move data to text • Should be able to stand alone

40. Discussion • First paragraph • State major findings • Last paragraph • “In summary…” (2-3 sentences) • “In conclusion…” (biggest message, return to Intro, avoid speculation, avoid “need more work”

41. Discussion • Middle paragraphs • Base each on a major result • Always focus on your results • Explain what is new without exaggerating • Never discuss prior work without reference to your work (but do not forget appropriate identification of prior research)

42. Discussion • Refer Tables and Figures • Do not repeat results • Include limitations section

43. References • Cite high IF Journals • Use editing programs • Relevant and recent

44. Common Mistakes in Objectives, Background and Significance • References: • Adequate to the concept • Review or books for well known aspects • Papers for details or similar studies to your one • Always choose high IF among similar • A non cited reviewer usually gets angry!

45. Write the thesis in two weeks? Never do it! • Plan your writing as early as possible • Have it read by a peer • Leave enough time for modification

46. Formal aspects • Avoid ambiguity • Concise: Least words, short words, one word vs many • Strengthen transition between sentences

47. Formal aspects • Check narrative flow: tell a story that the reader wants to read from start to end • Writing improves in proportion to deletion of unnecessary words • After the second draft send ms to your collegues • After the suggestions have been incorporated leave it for some time a re-read

48. Formal aspects • If you do not have time to check the spelling you may have not had time to check the quality of your experiments...... • Adherence to the formal style is crucial • Check references • Check and double check your work

49. First draft • Write as quickly as possible • As if thinking out loud • Get everything down • Ignore spelling, grammar, style • Correct and rewrite only when the whole text is on paper • Do not split the manuscript

50. Summary • Works should be focused, addressing important questions. • Avoid convoluted arguments/justifications of approach. Do not try to address too many questions.