A Basic Introduction to Qualitative Research

1. A Basic Introduction to Qualitative Research

2. What is Qualitative Research? • It’s an approach to research that examines a concept or phenomenon from the perspective of the individual who is experiencing it • The research purpose can range from preliminary description of a concept or phenomenon to development of a theory or model of a process or pattern

3. When is Qualitative Research most Useful? • When little knowledge exists about the area of research • When the nuanced perspective or personal experience of a particular group or population is needed • When the research aims require an individualized and less structured interview approach

4. Characteristics of Qualitative Research • Focuses on ‘meaning’ from the research participant’s point of view • Uses an inductive approach that is not informed by existing theory but rather builds theory from observations or interview data • This is in contrast to quantitative approaches that test specific hypotheses derived from existing theory or empirical data • Acquires data in a naturalistic environment that facilitates open discussion • Places few controls on other variables that may influence the data – they are viewed as an essential part of the context in which the phenomenon is being examined

5. Frequently Used Qualitative Approaches • Grounded Theory • Ethnography • Phenomenology

6. Grounded Theory • Stems from the field of sociology • Aims to generate explanatory models of human social behavior • Avoids use of pre-existing theory that limits the researcher’s ability to be open-minded about what may emerge from the data

7. Grounded Theory • Uses interviews, observations, and field notes to collect data • Involves simultaneous collection and analysis of data where hypotheses are generated and tested with new data as it is acquired

8. Ethnography • Stems from the field of anthropology • Examines a concept or phenomenon through participants’ narratives about their lives and the perspective of the culture of which they are a part

9. Ethnography • Uses participant observation, interview and field notes as the basis of data collection • Encourages the researcher to spend time or live with the group being studied to more fully understand the phenomenon from a cultural perspective

10. Phenomenology • Stems from the field of philosophy • Describes the concept or phenomenon being studied as it is experienced by the person (‘the lived experienced’)

11. Phenomenology • Uses multiple, in-depth conversations with participants and detailed examples from their experience as the source of data • Encourages the researcher to avoid any preconceptions, presuppositions or theoretical assumptions in collecting or interpreting the data

12. Methods of Data Collection • Interviews – use open-ended questions with individuals or groups to obtain data and then probe responses for more depth about a research question • Observations – involve recordings and systematic descriptions of behaviors, situations or events using notes made during and after their occurrence • The observer may be a participant in the event/situation or an ‘outsider’ who is given permission to be present

13. Methods of Data Collection • Focus groups – use group interaction to obtain data on participant’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors or experiences • Case studies – use individuals, events, programs or organizations as ‘cases’ that are examined via interviews, documents, observations, and audiovisual or archival records • Narrative – uses in-depth interviews, journals, letters and stories told by research participants that ‘gives voice’ to particular needs or views

14. Purposive Sampling versus Probability Sampling • Quantitative research uses probability sampling to ensure that a sample is representative of the composition and profile of the entire population being studied • Qualitative research more typically use purposive sampling, whereby participants and other data sources are selected to best meet the needs of the study • Purposive sampling identifies initial participants based on their particular demographics or experience with the phenomenon being studied • Further ‘theoretical sampling’ may occur as the study progresses to include participants with specific experiences or views that are identified as important from the emerging data

15. Sampling Units versus Sample Size • Quantitative research uses sample size as one way to assure that statistical tests have enough power to effectively test hypotheses • Qualitative research is more concerned with sampling units which represent the number of times each participant is interviewed or the number of observations that take place • These units are viewed as providing depth and detail in the data – the more data obtained from each participant, the fewer participants are generally needed • ‘Saturation’ or redundancy in the data that is being collected is often used to determine whether more participants or more interviews/observations are needed

16. Data Analysis • Transcribed records of interviews, field notes or other documents are carefully reviewed to identify categories, themes, or models reflected in the data • Each approach to qualitative research has specific techniques for reviewing the data, identifying codes or categories, and developing larger themes or models to explain the concept or phenomenon being studied • All approaches involve comparison of transcripts with original audio-records or input from the person conducting the interviews/observations to assure accuracy of the transcripts

17. Strategies to Enhance Validity and Reliability • Qualitative researchers view characteristics such as credibility, dependability, trustworthiness, and transferability of the data and results as evidence of validity and reliability • Researchers are expected to create an ‘audit trail’ that carefully describes the methods and procedures used • Interviewers and observers are trained in techniques to avoid bringing bias to the data collection process, although some bias is assumed in all research

18. Strategies to Enhance Validity and Reliability • Independent coding of data segments by different members of the research team is used to compare the consistency of categories or themes being identified across researchers – differences are then discussed and resolved • Situations or cases that don’t support emerging conclusions are sought out to assure that interpretations of the data consider varied perspectives • Summaries of the emerging results are given to participants for evaluation of their accuracy and their salience to the participants

19. Selected Qualitative Researchers on Campus as Potential Resources • School of Dentistry • Elizabeth Mertz, PhD – Assistant Professor, Preventive and Restorative Dental Sciences • School of Medicine • Shelley Adler, PhD – Professor, Family & Community Medicine • Judith Barker, PhD – Professor, Anthropology, History and Social Medicine • Daniel Dohan, PhD – Professor, Institute for Health Policy Studies

20. Selected Qualitative Researchers on Campus as Potential Resources • School of Nursing • Carol Dawson-Rose, RN, PhD - Associate Professor, Community Health Systems • Susan Kools, RN, PhD – Professor, Family Health Care Nursing • Howard Pinderhughes, PhD – Associate Professor, Social and Behavioral Sciences • School of Pharmacy • DorieApollonio, PhD – Associate Professor, Clinical Pharmacy

21. References to Related Articles with More Detail • Hodges BD, Kuper A, Reeves S. Discourse analysis. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a879.doi: 10.1136/bmj.a879. PMID: 18687729. • Kuper A, Lingard L, Levinson W. Critically appraising qualitative research. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a1035. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a1035. PMID: 18687726. • Kuper A, Reeves S, Levinson W. An introduction to reading and appraising qualitative research. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a288. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a288. PMID: 18687727. • Lingard L, Albert M, Levinson W. Grounded theory, mixed methods, and action research. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a567. doi: 10.1136/bmj.39602.690162.47. PMID: 18687728. • Reeves S, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Qualitative research methodologies: ethnography. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a1020. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a1020. PMID: 18687725. • Reeves S, Albert M, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Why use theories in qualitative research? BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a949. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a949. PMID: 18687730.