Metabolism

1. Metabolism

2. Appetite Hunger and satiety are regulated by a complex interaction of multiple brain centers, hormones, and sensory and motor pathways.

3. Hunger center a region in the lateral hypothalamus that triggers the desire for food stimulated destroyed

4. Satiety center a region in the ventromedial hypothalamus that suppresses the desire for food stimulated destroyed

5. The satiety center has neurons called glucostats that rapidly absorb blood glucose after a meal. hypothesis: glucose uptake causes the satiety center to send inhibitory signals to the hunger center and thus suppresses the appetite. _ Hunger Center Satiety Center + + Blood glucose appetite

6. Gastric peristalsis stimulates hunger. Mild hunger contractions begin soon after the stomach is emptied and increase in intensity over a period of hours.

7. Role of Hormones in Appetite Regulation - Hormones from GI: cholecystokinin: suppressant ghrelin: stimulant PYY: suppressant - Adipocytes (fat cells) secrete hormones (leptin) that regulate appetite and body weight. (Science 299:846-849 2003)

8. Leptin's effects. Because of a gene defect, the boy doesn't make leptin, but treatment with the hormone, begun when he was 3.5 years old (top), brought his weight down to normal levels, as shown at age 8. (Science 299:846-849 2003)

9. Caloric restriction (by 30%) prolongs life span by 30%-50% and reduces morbidity(發病率) of aging-related diseases. These effects have been observed in many animal species, including worms, insects, rodents, and maybe primates. Proteins Low fat/cholesterol Vitamins Minerals Carbohydrates unchanged reduced by 30%

10. Role of blood glucose in providing energy - ATP is the universal cellular energy, and can be produced from glucose, fat, and proteins. - A total of 38 ATP is generated per molecule of glucose in the presence of oxygen.

11. Blood glucose is more important than fat and proteins in providing energy • Glucose can be used by all tissue cells. • Neurons and erythrocytes normally obtain energy only from glucose. • hypoglycemia  weakness, coma • Blood glucose level has to be maintained.

12. Maintenance of blood glucose discussed in two states. 1) Absorptive State lasts about 4 hours after a meal. 2) Postabsorptive State

13. Absorptive State • Blood glucose is readily available for ATP synthesis. • Glucose serves as a primary fuel and spares the body from having to draw on stored fuels.

14. glycogen fat Absorptive State Excessive glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles or as body fat.

15. Absorptive State Fats are taken by the tissues, especially adipose and muscular tissue. Amino acids become available for protein synthesis. Amino acids

16. Regulation of the Absorptive State • regulated largely by insulin, which stimulates nearly all cells to absorb glucose. insulin receptors blood insulin cell glycogen glucose muscle cell

17. Postabsorptive State (fasting) • prevails hours after meals and overnight. • The essence of this state is to regulate blood glucose levels, which is especially critical to the brain.

18. Glucose is drawn from the body's glycogen reserves in liver and muscles, or synthesized from fats (gluconeogenesis). glycogen fats

19. Postabsorptive State After 4 to 5 days of fasting, the brain begins to use ketone bodies as supplemental fuel. - from fat - acidosis

20. glycogen fats After glycogen and fat reserves are depleted - The body begins to burn proteins. - The first to go is skeletal muscle proteins. proteins

21. glycogen fats Regulation of the Postabsorptive State - by the sympathetic nervous system and several hormones. - The sympathoadrenal system can mobilize stored energy reserves in adipose tissue as needed.

22. glycogen fats Glucagon promotes: 1) glycogenolysis glycogen  glucose 2) gluconeogenesis AA/FFA  glucose 3) lipolysis triglyceride  FFA

23. Growth hormone also raises blood glucose concentrations.

24. Body Heat and Thermoregulation

25. Body Temperature • Body temperature fluctuates about 1oC in a 24-hour cycle. • lowest in the early morning • highest in the late afternoon

26. Core temperature • in the cranial, thoracic, and abdominal cavities • close to rectal temperature • 37.2  -37.6  C • (99.0-99.7  F) • Shell temperature • - skin and oral • 36.6  -37.0  C • (97.9-98.6  F)

27. heat heat • Heat Production • Body heat is generated from: • nutrient oxidation (ATP production) • energy in glucoseATP • 2) ATP use • energy in ATPmechanical energy

28. Heat Production - At rest, mainly generated in brain, liver, heart, endocrine glands, and skeletal muscles(20-30%). - During vigorous exercise, skeletal muscles produce 30-40 times as much heat as the rest of the body.

29. Heat Loss The body loses heat through: • Conduction Evaporation Radiation

30. Thermoregulation • Hypothalamic thermostat • monitors the blood temperature • receives signals from peripheral thermoreceptors in the skin.

31. Thermoregulation thermostat • 37.5  C heat-losing center heat-promoting center in the hypothalamus

32. When blood temperature is too high • heat-losing center stimulates • dilation of dermal arterioles • sweating

33. When blood temperature drops too low • heat-promoting center stimulates • dermal vasoconstriction • shivering thermogenesis. • 3) later increase in metabolic rate by 20-30% as adaptation.

34. Disturbances of Thermoregulation Exposure to excessive heat causes: • 1) heat exhaustion • hypotension, dizziness, vomiting, and sometimes fainting • 2) heat stroke • brain cell malfunction, convulsions, coma, and finally death

35. heat Hypothermia • refers to low body temperature • when below 33oC (91oF), the metabolic rate drops so low that heat production cannot keep pace with heat loss, and the temperature falls further. glucoseATP enzyme

36. Hypothermia below 24oC (75oF) = fatal. • Which way helps a person survive longer in ice-cold sea water? • Swim vigorously • Rest and keep awake