Introduction to Applied Linguistics

1. Introduction to Applied Linguistics 2-year College, Senior students 2 hours, 18 weeks Spring semester LEXICON OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE: Productive Ways of Word-formation in Modern English Professor: LydmilaKudrevatykh

2. Learning Activities • Preview material of a chapter at home • Learn linguistic terminology • Listen to the teacher’s explanations • Do practical in class • Correct mistakes under the supervision of the teacher

3. 1. Preview next week material 2. Discuss definitions and classifications 3. Do practical Individual home work Teacher’s explanations and presentations Classroom activity: Individual, pair- or group-work Course Methods

4. Lesson plan in weeksWays of Word-Building in Modern English • Morphemic structure of a word; • Productive ways of word-building in Modern English: word-derivation; • Word-derivation (cont); • Word-composition; • Word-composition (cont); • Conversion; • Shortening; • Review; • Midterm.

5. Lesson plan (continued) Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words;Semantic Nature of a Word • Synonyms; • Antonyms; • Homonyms; • Hyponyms; Paronyms; • Metaphor; • Metonymy; • Idioms; • Review; • Final Test.

6. Lexicon of the English languageWhat is Lexicology? Lexicon of a language is its vocabulary including its words and expressions. Linguistics studies the lexicon in the course of Lexicology. Lexicology is a branch of Linguistics that studies the meaning and the use of words. 2 basic subdivisions of Lexicology: Morphology and Semantics • Morphology studies forms of words. • Semantics studies meanings of words.

7. What kind of words does Lexicology study? Lexicology mostly studies lexical words than grammatical words e.g.: We are coming tonightby a 10 o’clock bus Lexical words carry the main meaning of a sentence: Coming , tonight, ten, o’clock, bus Grammatical words make the sentence grammatically complete: we, are, by, a

8. Morphemic structure of a word Morphemes are units smaller than a word each having its sound form and a meaning: teach-er(2), help-less-ness (3), sports-man (2). • Like a word - a morpheme is a two-sided unit that has a certain sound-pattern and a meaning. • Unlike a word - a morpheme is not an independent unit, it isa constituent part of a word. Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller units without losing their meanings.

9. Types of Morphemes: Free Lexical Morphemes Morphemes may be free and bound. Free morphemes are used independently. Free lexical morphemes are rootsof words. They fulfill 2 functions: • express lexical meaning of a word (play, plays, playing) • build up words by themselves (teach, house, world)

10. Types of Morphemes: Bound Lexical Morphemes (p. 121) Bound morphemes are dependent,constituent parts of words Bound lexical morphemes are mostly affixes added to a root. Affixes include prefixes and suffixes: • prefixesare used before the root (unpleasant) • suffixes – after the root morpheme (helpless) Bound lexical morphemes build up new lexical meanings of words

11. Review QuestionsMorphemic structure of a word What is a morpheme? What is a root morpheme? What is an affixal morpheme? What is meant by “a suffix”? What is meant by “a prefix”?

12. Childhood, speaker, homeward, unpredictable, booklet, debus, misunderstanding, include, enlarge, engine, disorganized, deliver, detail, affectionateness, underfed, water, discuss, realize, experience, daily, evaluate,, estimation, elderly, infatuate, study, somber, surprise, assessment, destroy, divide, ex-wife, demoralization, undersigned, inaccessible, impassable, remember, frustratingly Examples: table – It consists of a root morpheme: “table”; disappointment – It consists of 3 morphemes: “dis-“, “appoint” and “-ment”; “dis-” is a prefix, “appoint” is a root morpheme, “-ment” is a suffix; Practical 1Analyze morphemic structures of the following words:

13. Ways of Word-Building in Modern English Word-building is a process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic patterns. 2 ways of word formation: • productive ways are widely used to form a lot of new words in Modern English (word-derivation, word-composition, conversion, shortening); • non-productive ways are not frequently used for the production of new words in Modern English (blending, back-formation, sound-and-stress interchange, sound imitation)

14. Productive Ways of Word Formation:Word-Derivation Word-derivation or affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems – either prefixes or suffixes, or both As a result of word-derivation, a derivative (word) is built up 2 different ways of word-derivation: • prefixation and • suffixation

15. Word-Derivation: Degrees of Derivation Degrees of word-derivation: • zero degree of derivation: lack of affixes e.g., to support, to make • the first degree of derivation: only one affix is added (either suffix or prefix) e.g., unlock, kindly • the second degree of derivation: two affixes are added (either 2 suffixes or a suffix and a prefix, etc.) e.g., helplessness, dishonesty , cf.: sesquipedalianist(3)

16. Word-Derivation:Prefixation Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to a word stem Any prefix has the following features in English: • A meaning • A function In Modern English prefixes are used mainly to build up new lexical meanings of words of the same word-class.

17. Prefixation: Meanings of Prefixes(1) Prefixes may be of different meanings. They are: • 1. negative prefixes: unemployed, incorrect, amoral; • 2. reversative prefixes: unfasten, deform, disconnect; • 3. prefixes of time and order: pre-war, ex-president, foretell; • 4. prefixes of repetition: rewrite, remake; • 5. locative prefixes: subway, intercontinental, transoceanic, overcoat; • 6. pejorative prefixes: pseudoscientific, maltreat. (for more examples see handouts)

18. Prefixation: Functional Use(2) Functionally, English prefixes are used to create a new lexical meaning of a derivative word: an order – a disorder (noun – noun) pleasant – unpleasant (adjective – adjective) to read – to reread (verb – verb)

19. Prefixation: Parts of speech formed(3) In Modern English prefixes are not used to form a derivative of a different word-class Only some prefixes may change a word-class of a derivative. They are: be-, de-, en-:belittle, debus, entrain. They are used to form Verbs from Adjectives

20. Review QuestionsWord-Derivation: Prefixes What is word-formation? What is meant by productive ways of word-formation? What is word-derivation? How many degrees of derivation do you know? What is prefixation? What features do prefixes have in English? What are the main groups of meanings that prefixes might possess? What is the main function performed by prefixes? What are the three prefixes that might change a word-class of a derivative?

21. Disappointment, belittle, unbelievable, reread, subtropical, enrich, ex-boss, indistinguishable, immoral, overestimate, antinational, nonproductive, asocial, transcontinental, illegal, extraordinary, outgoing, counterattack, abnormal, unsophisticated, impose, stepdaughter, retroactive, pseudovector, co-producer, underestimating, derail Example: disrespect – It’s a derivative. It consists of 2 morphemes “dis-” and “respect” “dis-” is a prefix “respect” is a root Prefix “dis-“ has the meaning of a reversative action Prefixation: Practical 1Give a full morphological analysis of prefixes in the following words

22. Word-derivation:Suffixation Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to a word stem, e.g., to play –› a player, an interest –› interesting English suffixes fulfill 2 main functions: • Build-up new lexical meaning of a derivative; • Transfer a derivative into a new word-class e.g., clear – clearly (adjective –› adverb) a wonder – wonderful (noun –› adjective) to meet – a meeting (verb –› noun)

23. Suffixation: Functional Use(p. 126) Suffixes derive a word into a different word-class: • Verb  Noun: to form – formation • Verb  Adjective: to invent – inventive • Adjective  Verb: active – to activate • Noun  Adjective: a sister – sisterly, etc. Only some suffixes do not change the part of speech of a derived word but transfer it into another semantic group: • cf., the suffix –ship changes concrete nouns to abstract nouns, as in a champion - championship, a chairman - chairmanship; see also: a piano – a pianist, a dance – dancing, etc.

24. Suffixation:Functional Use(cont) According to the part of speech formed, suffixes may be classified into the following groups: • Noun-forming suffixes: -dom, -ness, -ist, -ism, -ment, -age, -ess; • Adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ous, -ish, -ative; • Verb-forming suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize, -ate; • Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly, -ward (for examples, please, see handouts)

25. Suffixation: Meaning of Derivatives(p. 126) Suffixes express various meanings in frames of certain parts of speech. Noun-forming suffixes may express the following meanings: • agent, profession or occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist; • appurtenance: -an(German), -ian(Russian), -ese(Japanese); • collectivity: -age, -dom, -hood, -ship; • abstract idea: -age, -ence, ancy, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, -tion, -th, -ty. Adjective-forming suffixes may express: • presence of quality (-ous, -ful, -able); • absence of quality (-less); Verb-forming suffixes have meanings of: • to cause, to become (-en, -ize, -fy) • To act in a specific way (-ate)

26. Suffixation:Splinters Splinters are parts of words which appeared as a result of clipping the end or the beginning of a word: mini- (from: miniature) minicar, miniradio; maxi- (from: maximum) maxi-house, maxi-sculpture; Euro- (from: European) Euromarket, Eurotunnel, Eurocard, -napper (from: kidnapper) busnapper, dognapper; -omat (from: automat) cashomat, laundromat; -eteria (from: cafeteria) booketeria, groceteria; -quake (from: earthquake) Moonquake, youthquake; -tel(from: hotel) motel, boatel, airtel; -burger (from: hamburger) fishburger, beefburger;; -scape (from: landscape) seascape, townscape; etc.

27. Review QuestionsWord-Derivation: Suffixes What is meant by suffixation? What are the main functions performed by suffixes? Name 5 noun-forming suffixes. Give examples. Name 5 adjective-forming suffixes. Give examples. Name verb-forming suffixes. Give examples. Name adverb-forming suffixes. Give examples.  What is understood by splinters?

28. Suffixation: Practical 1Give a full morphological analysis of the following words Government, unpredictable, winner, fruitfulness, businesslike, desperate, international, buddy, lioness, illiterate, leadership, companionship, glorious, interviewee, hopeless, piglet, cookery, inaccessible, glorious, martyrdom, ex-builder, immediate, actor, addressee, easily, description, subdivision, summarize, sharpen, interesting, careful, reddish, designate, considerate, designative, designatory, graduator, obstinateness, soldiery, nominee, armful Example: friendship – • It’s a derivative. • It consists of 2 morphemes “friend” and “-ship”. • “friend” is a root, • “-ship” is a suffix. Suffix “-ship“ has a meaning of “a condition of being a friend”; • It doesn’t change the part of speech of a derivative; • It is a Noun-forming suffix. • .

29. Suffixation:Practical 2Define meanings of suffixes in the following words • Define meanings of Noun-forming suffixes: Anticipation, novelette, employee, examiner, lioness, birdie, nestling, booklet, boredom, performance, temperature, partnership, similarity, easiness, reality, tourism, humanist • Define meanings of Adjective-forming suffixes: Hopeless, doable, brownish, governmental, useful, suitable, funny, jealous, notional, businesslike, informative, watered, kind-hearted, capitalist, desperate, starry, starred, woolen, illiterate

30. Suffixation:Practical 2 (cont)Define meanings of suffixes in the following words 3. Define meanings of Verb-forming suffixes: Generalize, demonstrate, purify, shorten, identify, illustrate, deliberate, circulate, activate, dictate, illustrate, analyze, widen, simplify, strengthen, enumerate, deafen 4. Define meanings of Adverb-forming suffixes: Clearly, wonderfully, downtown-ward, inward, affectionately, frustratingly

31. Productive Ways of Word-Formation:Compounding(p.122 – 124) • Compounding is combining of 2 or more stems of words in order to form a third word with a new meaning: e.g.,a handbag, duty-free, clip-claps, wait-and-see • The second word usually identifies an object while the first word specifies what kind of object it is: water tank/ tank water, washing machine/ machine washing, table game/ game table

32. Compounding:Structural classification (1)(p. 122) Structurally, compounds are characterized by a specific order and arrangement of stems. • It is usually the second stem that is a structural and a semantic center of a compound: a matchbox, freehanded, well known. The second component is often called “the head” of a compound word, and the first component – its “modifier”.

33. Compounding:Structural classification(cont)Degree of semantic independence ofstems(p.122) According to the degree of semantic independence of stems compounds might be of 2 different types: subordinate and coordinate compounds. Subordinate compounds are words the components of which are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance. It is the second component that forms the semantic and structural center of a compound word: e.g., atextbook, a shareholder.

34. Compounding: Structural classification(cont) Coordinate additive compounds(p.122) In coordinate compounds both stems are semantically equal in importance. Coordinate compounds fall into two subgroups: • additive compounds and • reduplicative compounds. • Additive compounds are formed from stems of independently functioning words of the same part of speech. • They denote an object that is two things at the same time: e.g., Chinese-Canadian, director-manager, parent-teacher (association).

35. Compounding:Structural classification(cont)Coordinate reduplicative compounds (p.122) • Reduplicativecompounds are made up by repetition of the first stem; as a result duplicates are made: fifty-fifty, tick-tock, etc. Reduplicative compounds may be of 3 kinds: • an exact repetition of the first stem in a word: hush-hush, goody-goody, bye-bye; • variation of consonants in the root: clap-trap, willy-nilly • variation of vowels in the root: chitchat, zigzag, ping-pong. Sometimes such words are called “ricochet words”.

36. Compounding: Structural classification (cont)Neo-classical compounds (p. 124) Some compound words contain parts which are not themselves independent words. They are mostly compounds formed from Latin and Greek loanwords, for example, in a word like bibliography neither biblio-, nor -graphy are words in Modern English. Such compounds are treated as neo-classical compounds and their parts are defined as “combining forms”: bio-, electro-, tele-, -ology, -phile, -scope e.g., biography, telescope, Philology

37. Compounding: Practical 1Define types of the following compounds according to the degree of their structural and semantic independence: 1. subordinate 2. coordinate: additive, reduplicative: (complete repetition, variation of consonants/vowels) One-sided, way-laid, onrush, hotchpotch, two-party (system), saw dust, shipshape, tricolor, freshman, tear-gas, hustle-bustle, goody-goody, take-home, week-end, week-ender, go-between, lipstick, fellow-lodger, willy-nilly, athlete-gymnast, triennial, eye-lid, Anglo-American, tick-tacks, hoity-toity, bye-bye, round-faced, star-chart, tit-bit, woman-hater, hotchpotch, helter-skelter, finger-print, director-manager, hurdy-gurdy, a blow-ball, hobnob, dairymaid, Afro-Asian, eyelevel, standpoint, hush-hush, director-producer, quake-stricken, slink-pink, shake-shack, mother-daughter (relationships), detective-policeman, flip-flop, Chinese-Canadian

38. Compounding: Morphological Classification(2)Types of stems joined together(p. 124) According to the morphological types of stems joined together, compounds are subdivided into 2 groups: neutral and syntactic. Neutral compounds may be of 3 types: 1. compounds proper that are formed by simple stems: ice-cold,bedroom, tallboy; 2. derivational compounds one of the stems of which is derived: kind-hearted,music-lover, absent-mindedness, grass-hopper; 3. compounds with a shortened stem:T-shirt, TV-set, phone call.

39. Compounding:Morphological Classification(2)longest words in English otorhinolaryngological (22 letters), immunoelectrophoretically (25 letters), psychophysicotherapeutics (25 letters), thyroparathyroidectomized (25 letters), pneumoencephalographically (26 letters), radioimmunoelectrophoresis (26 letters), psychoneuroendocrinological (27 letters) hepaticocholangiogastrostomy (28 letters), spectrophotofluorometrically (28 letters), pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism (30 letters).

40. Compounding:Morphological ClassificationTypes of stems joined together (p. 124) Syntactic compounds consist of elements typical of a phrase or a sentence (articles, prepositions, particles, adverbs, etc.): e.g.,Jack-of-all-trades; a go-between, a mother-in-law, a sit-in, a forget-me-not, a man-of-war, up-to-date, etc

41. Compounding: Practical 2Define types of the following compounds according to the morphological types of stems joined together: 1. neutral(proper, derivational, with shortened stem) 2. syntactic Heart-felt (talk), eye-witness (video), difficult-to-understand (proposal), shoe-maker, first-time (voter), Jack-o’-lantern, drive-in (restaurant), hanky-panky, e-mail, walk-in (closet), four-volume (piece), week-ender, sit-in (demonstration), larger-than-life (character), merry-go-round, T-shirt, icebound (waters), shilly-shally, coin-box, actor-manager, stand-up (meal), puffed-up, short-sighted, shooting-star, sitter-in, paper-money, panic-stricken, detective-manager, stay-at-home (moms), a feel-good (factor)

42. Compounding:Semantic Classification(3)Degree of motivation(p. 124) Semantically, compounds are treated as idiomatic or non-idiomatic compounds of different degrees of motivation • The meaning of a non-idiomatic compound word can be deduced from the meanings of its components: a reading-room, an evening gown. • The meaning of an idiomatic compound cannot be defined from the meanings of their stems and the degree of semantic cohesion of their constituent parts is very different, cf.: bull-in-a-china-shop (politics).

43. Compounding:Semantic Classification(3)Motivated compounds(p. 123) According to the degree of their motivation, compounds may be of 3 types: • completely motivated, • partially motivated, and • completely non-motivated. Non-idiomatic compounds are motivated units. In completely motivated compounds both components are used in their direct meanings: shoemaker, headache, street lamp. In partially motivated compounds one component is used in its direct meaning, while the other is used in its indirect meaning: e.g., aflowerbed, a castle-builder, hotdog.

44. Compounding:Semantic Classification(3)Non-motivated compounds (p. 123) Idiomatic compounds are non-motivated units. Completely non-motivated compounds lack any motivation, i.e. there is no connection between the meaning of a compound and the meanings of its components e.g., fiddlesticks means “nonsense”, eye-wash -“something that is said or done to deceive a person” red tape – “bureaucracy”.

45. Compounding:Practical 3Define the degree of motivation in the following compounds: (completely motivated, partially motivated, non-motivated) a cold duck, a grasshopper, hoodwink, a tricycle, a chatterbox, a cool beggar, a loudspeaker, horse-collar, earphones, huntsman, a bus-driver, hot-house, fireproof, higgledy-piggledy, hotheaded, a bookworm, hopscotch, star-dust, man-of-war, happy-go-lucky, red tape, will-o’-the-wisp, kith-and-kin, devil-may-care, hide-and-seek, hand-to-hand (fighting), hang-dog, hen-hearted, herring-bone, highwayman, heyday, highball, holystone, hugger-mugger, hush-money, tableland, onlooker, out-and-out, bolster savings, hot dog, hot-headed, humbug, scandalmonger, shorthand, singsong, wool-gathering, runoff, walkie-talkie

46. Compounding:Functional Classification(p.123) Functionally, compounds are viewed as words of different parts of speech: their word-class is often indicated by the second stem Compound words may belong to different word-classes: 1. nouns: abirthday, a weekend, a single mother; 2. adjectives: long-legged, peace-loving, easy-going; 3. adverbs: everywhere, outdoors, inside; 4. pronouns: someone, nothing; 5. connectives: within, without; 6. verbs formed by means of conversion: to blacklist, to blackmail; 7. verbs with verbal and adverbial stems: to bypass, to offset.

47. Compounding: Functional ClassificationWord-class patterns of compound words (pp. 123 – 124) • N + N: railway, summerhouse, cigar-ash; • Adj + N: short-term, blackberry, bluestocking; • N + Part I: soul-baring, fence-building, law-making, • N + Part II: horror-struck, smoke-blackened, technology-rejected; • Adj + Part II: short-lived, ill-prepared; • Adv + Part II: well known, badly-injured, half-seen; • Adj + Part I: freethinking, aggressive-sounding, slow-burning; • N + Adj: air tight, tobacco-mad; • Num + N: four-volume, one-vote, first-time; etc.

48. Compounding: Practical 4Identify functional patterns according to which the following compound words are built a newly-created (concept), walkie-talkie, a child-lover, a one-earner (household), a wipe-clean (carpet), fee-paying (school), well-meant, face-to-face, small-minded, man-of-the-people (impression), job-for-life (security), single-mothers, something-must-be-doner, Charles-and-Di (case), Pepsi Generation, a gap year, a theatre-goer, feel-good (factor), money-making (business), short-lived (plan)

49. Compounding: Syntactic Classification(5)Functions in a Sentence (for details see: pp. 100 – 105) In a sentence, compound words fulfill different functions. They may be used as the following members of a sentence: • Subject - Japan’s old job-for-life security has vanished… • Object – I forced my manservant to help me… • Predicate – My mentor was a great waterman. Langdon backpedaled; • Attribute – A definite end-of-the-holiday gloom was in the air; • Adverbial modifier of manner, time and order – … beautifully written in a neat penmanship… … He sat white knuckled in a passenger seat…

50. Compounding: Practical 5Identify syntactic functions of the following compounds in a sentence: (subject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier, etc.) • He was a little, white-faced, clean-shaven, grizzly-haired fellow… • I made a rash decision forcing my manservant to help me bring him to England. • … if she has to cook a crab, or anything else still alive, she grows teary-eyed and sings to them (Geisha). • … moving to the portentous stuff – like why-oh-why does he keep saying… • …it amounts to a keep-your-nerve-and-keep-your-chin-up appeal to Tory troops… • They shared an uninhibited, girl-behaving-badly attitude. • They had swallowed all his dim-witted lies (J.K. Rowling). • Sauniere was a no-brainer. • Langdon sat white-knuckled in passenger seat, twisted backward • The team conducted its review on-site. • The runoff from farmland can carry dirty water into the river.