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Biodiversity - Evolution L8

Biodiversity - Evolution L8. English in Natural Science 自然科学の英語. Biodiversity. Diversity = variety of elements Biodiversity: multiplicity of species in nature Space - biogeography Habitat - ecology  ecosystems Time - evolution  speciation. Multicellular 540 m.y. Aquatic

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Biodiversity - Evolution L8

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  1. Biodiversity - EvolutionL8 English in Natural Science 自然科学の英語 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  2. Biodiversity • Diversity = variety of elements • Biodiversity: multiplicity of species in nature • Space - biogeography • Habitat - ecology  ecosystems • Time - evolution  speciation 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  3. Multicellular 540 m.y. Aquatic Terrestrial Eukaryotes 1,800 m.y. Water Prokaryotes 3,500 m.y. Marine Sediment Rocks Human mind 2 m.y The tree of life DOMAINS 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  4. Kingdom - Animalia Phylum - Chordata Class - Mammalia Order - Rodentia Family - Muridae Genus - Apodemus Species - sylvaticus FIVE KINGDOMS Monera (Prokaryotes) Bacteria Archaea Protista (Eukaryotes) Animalia Fungi Plantae Field mouse Taxonomy (Systema Naturae, Carl von Linné 1758) Cladistics: building of evolutionary tree Systematics: phylogenetic classification 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  5. More animals than plants 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  6. (After Wilson, 1992) How many species? • Catalogued 1,413,000 (Wilson,1992) • Estimated 10,000 - 30,000 • Unexplored • Rainforest canopy • Bottom of oceans • Soil microorganisms 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  7. Phyla distribution on Earth (After Grassle, 1991) • Marine ecosystems contain all existing phyla • Benthic organisms are the most diverse in structure and function • Living organisms originated in marine sediments • Terrestrial organisms are modern (<540 m.y. old) • Comprise 1/3 of all existing phyla • Plants - photosynthesis advantageous on land • Most insects (adapted to dry environments - xeric) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  8. Marine benthos Tropical canopy Biodiversity 1500-2500 m (Grassle et al., 1991) Beetles on Luehea seemannii (Erwin & Scott, 1980) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  9. Soil ecosystems • Soil is produced by the interaction of biota and surface of the Earth • Micro-ecosystem within an ecosystem • Essential role in recycling and decontamination of matter (After Stockl, 1946) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  10. Birds in Provence (After Blondel, 1979) X = vegetation complexity Y = diversity index Measurements of diversity • H’a Alpha diversity (MacArthur, 1965) • Number of species at one habitat • H’b Beta diversity (Whittaker 1960, 1977) • The rate at which species numbers increase between contiguous habitats • Indicates the change of habitat in an area • H’g Gamma diversity • Total species in a large territory - I.e. island, region • Equitability • Evenness of abundance among species Shannon’s diversity index H’ = -∑pi ln pi pi = ni/N 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  11. std of relative abundance No. species (After May, 1988) Patterns of diversity • Species relative abundance (SRA) • Lognormal distribution • Dominant species • Rare - specialist species • Diversity indices • Number of species • Proportion of individuals 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  12. Evolution and speciation • Biodiversity changes - Geological eras and periods • Extinction of old forms & apparition of new ones • Environment is the theatre and evolution the play • Evolutionary forces • Natural selection of adaptations (Darwin & Wallace, 1859) • Genetic modification - mutations • Survival of the fittest • Isolation - allopatric speciation • Reproduction • Split populations • Continental drift & island formation • Habitat segregation (i.e. mountains) • Adaptive radiation - sympatric speciation • small populations  several niches 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  13. Sympatric speciation • A single population occupies all niches • Adaptation to a niche • Specialization • Reproductive isolation • Segregation into several species • Within islands, lakes, oceans • Galapagos finches (~13 sp.) • Hawaii honeycreepers • Cichlidae fish (~300 sp. lake Victoria, Tanzania) • Sharks (~350 sp.) • Host-parasites 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  14. Picidae AfricaSouth America Convergence • Different taxa but similar structure • Same function in ecosystem • Pacific island’s woodpeckers Hawaii Galapagos New Zealand 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  15. Colonization • August 27,1883 • eruption of Krakatau (Sunda strait, Indonesia) • Colonists in order of appearance • Spiders • Aerial plankton (72 species in 10 days) • animals, spores, Compositae seeds • Birds, bats • Seeds, parasites • Aquatic reptiles • Succession of extinctions and replacements • Final ecosystem very different from • Original Krakatau • Nearby mainland 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  16. What determines biodiversity? • Energy in ecosystems • Tropical > temperate > polar • Large areas • Continents > Islands • Large forest > small forest • Continental break-up • Since Cretaceous • Increased variety of environments • Fostered evolution Diversity of niches + Stable populations (no extinction) in Complex ecosystems 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  17. Island’s biodiversity • Correlated with • Distance from mainland • Area • No. species doubles for a 10-fold increase in area (MacArthur & Wilson, 1963) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  18. Evolution of plant biodiversity • Flowering plants (Angiosperms) since Cretaceous • Old taxa remain constant or decrease 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  19. Evolution of animal biodiversity • Modern fish (Osteichthyes) since Cretaceous • Modern terrestrial animals (tetrapods) since Tertiary 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  20. 27,000 sp./year 74 sp./day 2050 Historical extinction events 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  21. The sixth extinction event - human impact Extinct species: not seen in 50 years • 73% mammals in America gone (10,000 y) • 1/5 birds (2000 y) from11,000  9,040 current species) • Pacific Islands (25-60%) • Songbirds Eastern USA: 50% populations from 1940-1980 • 20% freshwater fish • Malaysia (46%), Lake Victoria (50%), Lake Lanao - Philippines (83%) • Invertebrates • 17-34% endangered in Europe • Mollusks • 24% in Lake Erie and Ohio rivers (USA) • 100% tree snails in Tahiti • Plants • 228/20,000 in USA (680 endangered) • 40-50% fungi in Europe (Netherlands, Germany) HIPPO Habitat destruction 88% Invasive species 46% Population (human) Pollution 20% Overkilling 14% 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  22. Coral reefs • Survived through 500 millions of years • Historical changes of sea level (glacial periods) • Natural catastrophes (volcanic, tsunamis) • El Niño fluctuations (typhoons) • Now dying • 10% most places • 30% Florida • Main causes • Climate change & pollution • Coral bleaching • Zooxanthellae lost due to pollutants and high water temperature • Predation by star of thorns (Australia Great Barrier Reef) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  23. Habitat destruction 1979: 56% tropical rainforest • Rate: 75,000 km-2/y (1%) 1989: 8 m km2 left (<50%) • Rate: 142,000 km-2/y (1.8%) CAUSES • Small farming (poverty) • Slash-and-burn cultivation  air pollution • Soya beans, palm oil, coca • Commercial logging • Cattle 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  24. Why are rainforest so important? • Storage of CO2 • Unlike temperate forest, all carbon is stored in plant tissues (timber, roots) • Refuges of biodiversity • Species per area >>> temperate forest • Untapped source of medicines, useful products 0.15 < z < 0.35 Low z  dispersal ability (birds, etc) High z  immobile (plants) S = C Az S number species A area C constant z constant Predictedlosses by 2022 (Wilson, 1992) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  25. Ivory Coast Tanzania Colombian Choco Western Ecuador Madagascar Hawaii New Caledonia Cape Province E Himalayas California Philippines Uplands W Amazon Atlantic Coast Brazil W Ghats Malaysia + N Borneo Sri Lanka Central Chile SW Australia Biodiversity ‘Hot spots’ (Myers, 1988) 1.3% Land  40% plants + 25% vertebrates 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  26. Invasive species • Damage • Pests and weeds out of control • Competition  native population • Extinction of native species • Routes • Transportation (ship) • Norwegian rat, mice, ants, spiders, seeds (sheep), diseases • Pet traders (black market) • Snakes, toads, crocodiles, birds • Sport • Rabbits and foxes in Australia • Blackbass in Japan • Nile perch in Lake Victoria (Tanzania) 50% of endemic cichlid fish extinct Japan Invasive Alien Species Act Effective June 2005 Prohibition to import 11 mammals 4 birds 6 reptiles 1 amphibian 4 fish 3 insects (ants) 10 invertebrates (spiders) 3 plants 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  27. Pollution • 38% of extinctions - weaken organisms • Aquatic ecosystems more affected than terrestrial • Continuous exposure (gill filtering) and accumulation • Less ability to degrade pollutants (oxidases) • Main effects • Direct mortality of individuals • toxicity (pesticides, PCBs, industrial chemicals, heavy metals) • Endocrine disruption • organochlorines, pharmaceuticals, hormones • Malformations and cancer • dioxins, PCBs, heavy metals • Stress - diseases • Habitat transformation • Planktonic, benthic and soil communities • Forests (air pollution) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  28. (After Wilson, 1992) Overkilling • The big, the slow and the tasty • Australia (30,000 y) • 80% marsupials (giant) • North America (12,000 y) • 73% mammals • Mammoth, horse, tapir, ground sloth, camel, antelopes, bison • Indian-Pacific islands (3,000 y) • Flightless birds (moa, Aepornis, rails, dodo) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  29. Human population • Humanity appropriates 20-40% world bio-resources (solar energy) • Use 30% of productivity of all ecosystems Human biomass animals biomass 350 m tons +  - 350 m tons • Increase rate: 70 million people/ year • Bleak future • Unsustainable for both humanity and nature • After exhausting natural capacity CRASH !!! • Inevitably we are digging our own graves 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  30. Environmental ethics • Practical reasons • Natural resources are essential for our lives • food, medicines (40% pharmaceuticals) • clean air and water • Ethical reasons • We are not aliens on Earth: we come from it and depend on it for our living • We have no right to destroy what we have not created • Natural world belongs to the Creator • We use it, but DO NOT destroy it • We have to know more… “The better an ecosystem is known, the less likely it will be destroyed” 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  31. Epitaph “The ultimate irony of organic evolution: that in the instant of achieving self-understanding through the mind of man, life has doomed its most beautiful creations. And thus humanity closes the door to its past” (Wilson, 1992) “In the end, we will conserve only what we love, we will love only what we understand, we will understand only what we are taught” (Baba Dioum, Senegal) 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

  32. References • Edward O. Wilson. 1992. The diversity of life / 園芸-応用動物昆虫学B-226 • Edward O. Wilson. 2002. The future of life /B-226 • Paul Davies. 2000. The origin of life/ B-226 • Robert M.May 1988. How many species are there on Earth. Science 241: 1441-1449. http://www.h.chiba-u.jp/english/Education/ENS_H12001/ENS.htm 自然科学の英語-ENS-L8

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