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METACOGNITION

METACOGNITION. Celine Souchay Senior Lecturer in Human Memory c.souchay@leeds.ac.uk. Reading list. Koriat, A. (1993). How do we know that we know ? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review, 100 , 609-639.

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METACOGNITION

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  1. METACOGNITION Celine Souchay Senior Lecturer in Human Memory c.souchay@leeds.ac.uk

  2. Reading list • Koriat, A. (1993). How do we know that we know ? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review, 100, 609-639. • Agnew S.K and Morris R.G. The heteregoneity of anosognosia for memory impairment in Alzheimer’s disease: a review of the literature and a proposed model, Aging and Mental Health, 2: 7-19, 1998. • Pannu, J., Kaszniak, A. (2005) Metamemory Experiments in Neurological Populations: A Review, Neuropsychological Review, vol15, No.3, 105-129 • Souchay, C. (2007) Metamemory in Alzheimer’s disease, Cortex, 43, 987-1003

  3. CAT NO INSIGHT Insight and learning http://chris.moulin.googlepages.com/stickythecat

  4. Humans can learn by insight Insight and learning “Oh! It’s the string hanging down!”

  5. Plan • 1 Awareness and Metamemory • 2 Special Populations • 3 Neuroimagery

  6. Awareness and Metamemory Anosognosia Babinski (1914) • Observation of the behavior of several patients with left-sided paralysis due to right-hemisphere cerebral damage. • Patients had no ideas of their paralysis and never complained • First use of the word ‘Anosognosia’: Unawareness of deficit phenomena in patients suffering from a variety of neurological impairments Why is awareness of memory deficits important ? • Unaware patients lack motivation for treatment, • fail to implement compensating strategies, • maintain unrealistic goals for rehabilitation, • fail to benefit from therapy

  7. Awareness and Metamemory Awareness of physical disabilities • Hemiplegia • Original description by Babinski (1914). • Anton’s syndrome -Unawareness of blindness first described by Anton (1899). 56 year-old woman, blind, and unaware of her disability. Awareness of Cognitive difficulties Disorders of Cognition are more subjective • “Everyone complains of his memory, no-one complains of his judgement.” François Duc de La Rochefoucauld, (1613-1680)

  8. referred by her GP her husband insisted that she had a professional opinion joked about her memory not being as good as it used to be she was confident that she was scoring well in the formal assessments of memory could give no examples of her memory difficulties, and denied it was having any impact on her life Awareness and Metamemory Consider two patients at memory clinic: • self-referred to see a community based screening team • harangued his GP for a referral for formal memory assessment. • did not joke about his problems, and complained constantly • gave detailed vignettes of recent memory failures, such as failing to lock up the house • he worried throughout examination that his scores were low

  9. Awareness and Metamemory • Awareness can be diagnostic • - e.g. the worried well • Used to differenciate between Alzheimer’s disease and Frontotemporal lobe dementia (Souchay et al., 2002) • Awareness can influence other cognitive difficulties and rehabilitation Metamemory used as a tool to measure awareness of memory abilities (Souchay et al., 2007)

  10. Awareness and Metamemory Metamemory.Higher order cognitive processes involved in memory function and encapsulates beliefs, attitudes, sensations and knowledge about memory function (Flavell, 1979) Metamemory level CONTROL MONITORING Manipulation of an item to achieve optimum performance Assessment of the registration of an item Memorylevel anosognosia Nelson and Narens (1990)

  11. Awareness and Metamemory M O N I T O R I N G Ease-of-Learning Judgment Judgment-of-Learning Feeling-of-knowing Judgment-of-Confidence Acquisition Retrieval C O N T R O L Selection of learning Strategies Modification of Strategies Selection of search strategies Termination of search Nelson and Narens (1990)

  12. JOL Awareness and Metamemory Judgement of Learning (JOL) = Participant’s capacity to predict their recall during learning on each item Jols can be made immediately after learning of after a delay Predict Recall Study Recall Test

  13. No Recall Recall FOK Awareness and Metamemory • Feeling-of-knowing (FOK) = • Participant’s capacity to predict their recognition of a non-recallable item Predict Recognition Recall Test Recognition -

  14. Awareness and Metamemory Global prediction = Participant predict the number of items they think they will recall Predict Recall Predict Recall Study Recall Test Predict Recall

  15. Awareness and Metamemory How to measure accuracy ? • Absolute: • Calibration: I say I’ll remember 5/10 items, and I do exactly that: Under and Overconfidence • Relative • You remember more of the ones you say you’ll be better at: the numbers do not matter • Comparison of performance for correct predictions and incorrect predictions Gamma Score = ad-bc/ad+bc

  16. Special Populations • 1 Aging • 2 Dementia (Alzheimer’s disease)

  17. Aging • Life expectancy continues to rise ! Men aged 65 could expect to live a further 16.9 years Women aged 65 could expect to live a further 19.7 years

  18. Aging • ‘collection of changes that render human beings progressively more likely to die.’ • ‘Progressive functional decline’ • ‘the incidence of a number of pathologies increases with age’

  19. Aging

  20. Aging • Memory in Aging: only some aspects of memory decline • Implicit / explicit memory • Age-related decline in explicit memory tasks (I.e. when asked to encode and retrieve the information) • Semantic / episodic memory • Age-related decline in episodic memory tasks (I.e. when asked to encode and retrieve new material)

  21. Aging • Memory in Aging: which explanations? • Biological explanations • The Frontal lobe Hypothesis (Souchay et al., 2000) • Strategy changes • Older adults less likely to use memory strategies (Craik et al., 1992) • Speed of processing • Older adults slower at performing cognitive tasks (Salthouse, 1992)

  22. Aging • Metamemory monitoring in Aging Connor, Dunlosky & Hertzog (1997) Older adults as accurate as young on immediate and Delayed JOLs

  23. Aging • Metamemory monitoring in Aging • Impaired Episodic FOK • Preserved Semantic FOK Souchay et al., 2000, 2007 • Why does age only affect Episodic FOK? • Does it related to the basis on which the predictions are made?

  24. Intrinsic Mnemonic JOL or FOK Extrinsic Aging Cue-utilization view (Koriat, 1993) Metamemory judgments rely on cues that have some validity in predicting performance • Three classes of cues: • Intrinsic: characteristics of the items • Extrinsic: characteristics of the task • Mnemonic: evaluation of how well and item has been learnt and will be remembered Familiarity with the cue (Reder, 1987) Partial information (Koriat, 1993)

  25. Intrinsic Mnemonic JOL or FOK Extrinsic Aging • FOK and JOL: Same mnemonic cues? • Literature: FOK and JOL are not correlated (Kelmen et al., 2000; Souchay et al., 2004) • Interpretation:FOK and JOL use distinct cues Familiarit with the cue (Reder, 1987) Partial Information (Koriat, 1993) Semantic FOK EpisodicFOK

  26. Intrinsic Mnemonic JOL or FOK Extrinsic Aging • How can we explain the age effect on Episodic FOK? • Older adults fail to recall partial information (Souchay et al., 2007) Familiarit with the cue (Reder, 1987) Partial Information (Koriat, 1993) Semantic FOK EpisodicFOK

  27. Aging • Metamemory Control in Aging Dunlosky & Connor, 1997 • Study 60 paired associates (dog-spoon) • Measure study time & JOL • Repeated study and test phases (x3) • Correlations between one trial and next JOL and study time Signif diff between age groups in correlations Regression Analysis: These measures of allocation significantly reduce variance due to age on memory tasks

  28. Aging • Metamemory Control in Aging Souchay et al. (2004): older adults have difficulties adjusting their memory strategies to the task difficulty

  29. Aging • Metamemory Control in Aging Souchay et al. (2004): older adults have difficulties adjusting their memory strategies to the task difficulty and this explain their memory difficulties

  30. Dementia • Cortical dementias • Alzheimer’s dementia • Frontotemporal lobe dementia • Semantic dementia • Lewy body dementia • Sub-cortical dementias • Vascular dementia (Biswanger’s disease) • Parkinson’s dementia • Huntington disease • Steele-Richardson’s disease • Other dementias • Brain tumors • Infection (HIV, Prion disease, Herpes) • Alcohol (Korsakoff’psychosis), carbon monoxyde • Cancer http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=pQO3Tq3KQL4

  31. Dementia • Alzheimer’s disase is the Most common cause of dementia: • 15% of the general population over the age of 65 • AD is progressive. • Early stage : depression + cognitive decline • Intermediate stage : irritability, anxiety + deterioration of speech • Advanced stage : even simple responses are difficult • Characteristics of the disease • Neurofibrillary tangles, Amyloide plaques, Neuron loss • Typical distribution • Medial temporal lobe structures: Enthorinal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus • Inferior temporal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, prefrontal cortex

  32. Dementia • Metamemory monitoring in Dementia ‘Bei der Unfahikeit, eine situation zu begreifen, great sie jedesmal in lautes Schrein, sobald man eine Untersuchung and ihr vornehmen’ (Alois Alzheimer, 1907, p. 5) (‘With her inability to understand her situation, she bursts into loud screams each time she is approached to be examined’.)

  33. Dementia • Metamemory monitoring in Dementia Alzheimer’s disease: Global predictions

  34. Dementia • Metamemory monitoring in Dementia -Overestimation when prediction made before and after the task -BUT AD patients able to monitor their memory performance by changing their predictions after having experienced the task (Ansell & Bucks, 2005; Moulin et al., 2000, 2002) AD patients can perceive, estimate and respond to a memory failure They have unrealistic expectations about their memory abilities but can reflect on them

  35. Dementia • Metamemory monitoring in Dementia Alzheimer’s disease: Item by item judgments

  36. Dementia • Metamemory monitoring in Dementia -AD patients more impaired on certain judgments (Episodic FOK) -Impairment due to a lack of partial information related to retrieval impairments in AD (Adam et al., 2005) FOK deficit in AD is a continuation of the episodic deficit

  37. Dementia • Metamemory monitoring in Dementia Alzheimer’s disease: The sensitivity approach (Moulin et al., 2000) -Sensitivity approach: Shift in prediction related to the task or material indicates correct use ‘online’ of general knowledge regarding memory function -AD patients make higher predictions in a recognition task compared to a recall task (Moulin et al., 2002), reduced their predictions for delayed tasks (McGlynn & Kaszniak, 1991), predict increasing performance with repeated learning (Duke et al., 2002) AD patients capable of monitoring factors at encoding that influence remembering

  38. Dementia • Metamemory control in Dementia • Material (Souchay, et al., 2004) • 32 words such as: ‘Chat’ ‘Arbre’ • 2 lists of 7 words • 2 lists of 9 words • AD patients able to monitor their study time at encoding • AD patients spend longer studying difficult items (Moulin, et al., 2000) • AD patients spend longer studying items presented only once (Moulin, et al., 2000) Souchay et al. (2008) Rehearsal strategy use in Alzheimer’s disease Explored AD patients abilities to rehearse • Learning conditions (Souchay, et al., 2004) • Overt rehearsal condition (ORC) • Control condition (C)

  39. Dementia Overt rehearsal condition (ORC) Study Patients informed about the task Recall-readiness procedure (Murphy, et al., 1987) Patients said when they had finished learning Overt rehearsal procedure (Rundus & Atkinson, 1970) Patients asked to rehearse each word aloud in addition to other words previously presented. Measures: Total study time per list Rehearsal measures Prediction How many words will you recall ? Free recall

  40. Dementia Overt rehearsal condition (ORC) At study, for each word, measure of the number of rehearsals Total rehearsal (TR): number of items rehearsed Different Rehearsal (DR): number of different items rehearsed Example for item number 4 in the list Rehearsal set ‘item 4, item 4, item 4, item 4, item 2, item 2, item 3, item 4’ TR= 8 DR= 3

  41. Dementia • Metamemory control in Dementia In sum: AD patients rehearse less BUT spend more time studying the items

  42. Dementia In sum: when given the choice between studying the items for longer or rehearsing more, • Young adults concentrate on rehearsing • Older adults and AD patients to a greater extent choose to spend more time studying the items How can we explain these differences ?

  43. Dementia • The Memory deficit hypothesis • AD patients fail to rehearse because they have forgotten the previous item (accelerated forgetting, Larrabee, et al., 1993) • The Executive deficit hypothesis • Strategies and Rehearsal involves executive functions (Souchay, et al., 2004) • ANCOVA analysis confirmed this hypothesis: Rehearsal deficits explained by executives deficits • The Self-initiation deficit hypothesis • AD patients fail to initiate memory strategies (hypothesis in Aging, Craik, 1986) • Is this lack of-self initiation an impairment when in AD repetition does not massively improve their memory performance ? AD patients update their knowledge regarding their memory functioning and efficiency of memory strategies (Souchay, 2007)

  44. Neuroimaging studies

  45. Neuroimaging studies Neuroimaging pinpoints frontal lobes as being responsible for metacognition Kikyo, Ohki, & Miyashita (2002) Neural correlates for feeling-of-knowing: An fMRl parametric analysis. NEURON, 36 (1): 177-186online

  46. Neuroimaging studies • Frontal lobes activation • Episodic and semantic FOK (Kikyo et al., 2002; Kikyo & Miyashita, 2004; Maril et al., 2003; Schnyer et al., 2005) • Temporal lobes activation • Patients studies suggest that the temporal lobes are not involved in metamemory (Janowksy et al., 1989) • FOK (Kikyo & Miyashita, 2005; Schnyer et al., 2005) Network of brain regions including the mediotemporal lobe and the prefrontal regions: the fronto-temporal route (Conway, 2005)

  47. Conclusions

  48. Conclusions Disorders & Diagnosis • Brain damage commonly includes lack of awareness • Neurological conditions are often confounded by a lack of awareness • Lack of awareness can be indicative of frontal damage

  49. Conclusions • Cognition involves ‘higher order’ thought processes, expectations and sensations • In order for proficient cognitive function it is necessary to have awareness or insight. • Awareness and insight facilitates control of cognitive processes monitoring (awareness) (appropriate) control proficiency

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