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Memory. Memory. the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information 3 Basic Processes: Encoding Storage Retrieval. Three-System Memory Theory. Sensory memory the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant
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Memory • the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information 3 Basic Processes: • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval
Three-System Memory Theory • Sensory memory • the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant • types are dependent on the source of sensory information (iconic memory, echoic memory) • can store information for only a very short time, but its precision is high • can be destroyed or replaced with a new one
Short - term memory • memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds • Chunk • a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory • can be individual letters or numbers, or may consist of larger categories such as words or meaningful units
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Rehearsal • the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory • information is maintained in the short-term memory or may transfer into long-term memory Elaborative rehearsal • occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion • expanding, linking to another memory, turning to image, transforming to some other way Mnemonics • formal techniques for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered
Working Memory • Some theorists view short - term memory as a working memory, in which information is retrieved and manipulated. In this view, it is a central executive processor involved in reasoning and decision-making • a set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information 3 systems • visual store (visual and spatial information) • verbal store (speech, words, numbers) • episodic buffer (episodes or events) • It uses significant amount of cognitive resources during its operation. In turn, it makes us less aware of our surrounding.
Long - term memory • memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve Serial position effect • the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears primacy effect • items presented early in the list are remembered better recency effect • items presented late in a list are remembered best
Memory Modules Declarative memory • memory for factual information Semantic memory • for general knowledge and facts about the world as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used infer other facts Episodic memory • memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context Procedural memory • memory for skills and habits
Semantic Networks • mental representations of clusters of interconnected information Spreading activation • activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories
Neuroscience of memory Hippocampus • aids in the initial encoding of information Cerebral Cortex • where information is stored Amygdala • involved with memories involving emotion
Recalling Long-Term Memory Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon • the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows - a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory Retrieval Cue • is a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory
Recall • memory task in which specific information must be retrieved Recognition • memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
What are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs? • Which of the following are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs? Goofy Bashful Sleepy Sneezy Smarty Happy Scaredy Doc Dopey Crazy Wheezy Donald
Levels-of-processing Theory • emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed • the amount of information processing that occurs when material is initially encountered is central in determining how much of the information is ultimately remembered • information is processed in physical and sensory aspects • translated to meaningful units • analyzed in terms of meaning (wider context, associations) • the deeper the initial level of processing of information is, the longer the information will be retained
Forms of Memory Explicit memory • intentional or conscious recollection of information Implicit memory • memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior • unclear dislike for an acquaintance • prejudice and discrimination
Priming • a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept (prime) later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept • Name the moon of Mars. • _ _ obos
Flashbulb Memories • memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event • memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (although not necessarily accurate) than are those relating to events that are commonplace • romantic experience, witnessing car accident, first airplane flight
Source amnesia • when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it before
Constructive Processes • processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events • experiences, guesses, inferences affect the memory we produce when we retrieve information Schemas • organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled • are based not only on the specific material to which people are exposed, but also on their understanding of the situation, their expectations, and awareness of motivations of others
A basic principle is that some information gets lost during each process. You notice only a small part the world that confronts you; you encode only a small part of what you notice; and you retrieve only part of what was previously stored in your memory.
Memory in the Courtroom • eyewitness on trial • wordings of questions • weapons • Age • repressed memories - recollections of events that are initially shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious • false memory - inaccurate or even wholly false • experience or imagination
AutobiographicalMemory • incompatible with the way in which we currently see ourselves • particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others
Why We Forget • Failure of encoding • Decay - loss of information in memory because of nonuse • Interference - the phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information • Cue-dependent forgetting - forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to revive information that is in memory
The Before and After of Forgetting • Proactive interference • interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material • Retroactive interference • interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material
Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer’s disease • an illness characterized in part by severe memory problems Amnesia • memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties retrograde amnesia • in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event anterograde amnesia • in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury
Improving Memory • keyword • encoding specificity • organization cues • effective note taking • practice and rehearse • don’t believe claims about drugs that improve memory
