PS28A Applied Interpersonal Dynamics

1. PS28A � Applied Interpersonal Dynamics PERCEPTION

2. What Is Perception? We usually see things we are looking for � so much that we sometimes see them where they are not (Eric Hoffer) We want the facts to fit the preconceptions. When they don�t it is easier to ignore the facts than to change the preconceptions.

3. What is perception? Definition A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment and their experiences. (Robbins, 1996, italics mine)

4. Factors Influencing Perception The Perceiver When an individual looks at a target what he/she sees is heavily influenced by personal characteristics: - Attitudes, motives, interests, past experience (See Katz�s Model)

5. Factors Influencing Perception The Target Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived: Motion, size, sound Its background

6. Factors Influencing Perception The Situation The environment in which the person or object is seen; or where an event took place

7. The Perception Process There are three basic processes Selection Organisation Interpretation

8. The Perception Process cont�d Selection - A sub process of identifying the relevant/appropriate data. Intensity physical properties or cues that stand out Repetition continuous exposure to a stimulus increases our awareness of it. Contrast/change Contrasting stimulus may be easily identifiable. Motives speaks to the reasoning behind the selection

9. The Perception Process cont�d Organisation Involves the application of meaning to the stimulus (making sense of the information) How does this sub-process work? Use of perceptual schema or cognitive frameworks

10. The Perception Process cont�d Organisation cont�d. Our perceptual schema consists of a number of different constructs that we use to classify self and others: Physical constructs � appearance/look Role constructs � social status Interaction constructs � social behaviour Psychological constructs � feelings displayed Membership construct � identify others according to the group they belong

11. Perception Process These schemas affect communication in two ways: Allow us to form impressions of others Used to predict future behaviours Choosing some constructs means that you ignore others

12. The Perception Process cont�d Interpretation � the third level of the perception process that determines our reactions to the stimulus.

13. The Perception Process cont�d Interpretation cont�d A number of factors may influence our interpretation. Four of these are: Degree of involvement with the other person Past Experience Expectations Self concept

14. Influences on Perception Physiological influences Cultural differences Social Roles Self concept Shared Narratives

15. Influences on Perception Physiological influences The senses Age Health Fatigue Hunger Biological Cycles

16. Influences on Perception Cultural differences Culture is a powerful factor in shaping perception. Every culture has its own world view.

17. Influences on Perception Self Concept Extensive research shows that a person with high self-esteem is more likely to think well of others whereas someone with low self-esteem is likely to have a poor opinion of others

18. Influences on Perception Shared Narratives Our interaction with other individuals and groups creates a shared perception of the world. The term �narrative� reflects the notion that humans make sense of the world by spinning a kind of story to explain events.

19. A Model of Perception (Susan Fritz et. Al. � Interpersonal skills for leadership)

20. Person Perception People have beliefs about other people they know. These beliefs guide people in several ways. Within social psychology, the study of beliefs about people is called �person perception�. �Person perception� may be distinguished from �object perception� in several ways:

21. Person vs Object Perception Person perception is reciprocal. Persons are aware that others are perceiving them and try to evaluate what is being perceived. Person perception is directly tied to self perception. People change more than physical object do .

22. The Role of Perception within the Interpersonal Why is is important to understand the subject area of perception? 1. To identify our own tendencies in perceiving self and others. 2. To increase our awareness of how these tendencies affect (positive/negative) our interpersonal relationships and encounters.

23. The Role of Perception within the Interpersonal Our Tendencies We often tend to judge ourselves more generously than we judge others We tend to be influenced by what is most obvious We tend to cling to first impressions We tend to assume others are similar to us

24. ATTRIBUTION Attribution Theory: Main concept � internal vs. external locus of control: the interpretation of situations as being caused by one�s disposition or by ones environment.

25. ATTRIBUTION Attribution is the process of attaching meaning to behaviour (Adler & Towne)

26. ATTRIBUTION Self-Serving Bias We make internal attributions about our successes or positive outcome and blame our failures or negative outcomes on external factors

27. ATTRIBUTION Fundamental Attribution Error We tend to emphasise external factors and underemphasize internal or situational factors

28. ATTRIBUTION Attribution Cube Theory � Harold Kelly 1971. Attribution Cube Theory highlights three factors that determine whether the behaviour of others is attributed to internal or external causes. Consensus � Does the behaviour affect everyone in the same way? Consistency � Does the behaviour occur repeatedly? Distinctiveness � Does the behaviour occur in other similar situations

29. ATTRIBUTION Can we use attribution effectively?

30. PERCEPTION CHECKING Perception checking is an important approach to ensuring that we do not assume that our first interpretation is correct or be treated as facts. It involves three basic elements:

31. Perception Checking - Steps Description of Behaviour - give a non evaluated, descriptive account of what was noticed. At least two possible interpretations - give two possible interpretations to what was seen A request for clarification about how to interpret the behaviour � give the person the opportunity to clarify the behaviour displayed

32. Example of Perception Checking When you stomped out of the room and slammed the door (behaviour), I wasn�t sure whether you were mad at me (first interpretation) or just in a hurry (second interpretation). How did you feel? (request for clarification)

33. Empathy Empathy is the ability to re-create another�s perspective; to experience the world from another�s point of view. It involves three dimensions: Perspective taking Emotional aspect Genuine concern for the other�s welfare

34. Empathy Perspective Taking An attempt to take on the viewpoint of another person � set aside your own judgment/opinions and try to understand the other person

35. Empathy Emotional Taking The ability to get close to experiencing others� feelings: to get a sense of their fear, joy, sadness, anger, frustration, etc.

36. Empathy Genuine Concern It is going beyond just thinking and feeling as the individual, and expressing genuine care about another�s well being.

37. Build Empathy � Pillow Method Position 1 � I�m right, you�re wrong We see virtues in our position and find fault with anyone who happens to disagree with us. Position 2 � You�re right, I�m wrong We switch perspectives and build the strongest possible arguments to explain how another person can view the issue different from you.

38. Pillow Method � 5 Positions Position 3 � Both right, both wrong From this position you see strengths and weaknesses in both perspectives. Position 4 � The issue isn�t as important as it seems Realizing that the controversy is not as critical as you thought

39. Pillow Method � 5 Positions Position 5 � There is truth in all 4 perspectives Once you have looked at the issue from all positions, you will gain new insights that may cause you to: Change your mind Solve the problem at hand Increase your own tolerance Improve the communcatin climate

40. The Pillow Method In Action Background Who would have thought planning a wedding would be such a nightmare? My fianc� and I are struggling to decide whether we should have a large, festive wedding, or a small, intimate one. I�m in favour of having a big, expensive ceremony and party. He wants a smaller, more affordable one.

41. Position1: I�m right, he�s wrong I have a big family, and I would feel guilty not inviting everyone. Also, we have lots of friends who would really miss not being present to celebrate our special day. If we invite one friend or a relative, I say we have to invite them all to avoid hurting anybody�s feelings. Otherwise, where do you draw the line? As far as money goes, I say that you only get to marry once, and this is no time to scrimp. My parents are willing to help pay the expenses because they want our entire family to be there at the wedding.

42. Position2: He�s right, I�m wrong My fiance is right to say that we really don�t have the funds to spend on a fancy wedding. Every dollar we spend on a lavish event will be one less dollar we have to buy a house, which we hope to do soon. My boyfriend is right to say that a big wedding could postpone our house purchase for a year or two �maybe even longer, if real estate prices go up before we

43. Position 2 con�t can buy. He�s also right to say that no matter how many people we invite, someone is always going to be left out. It�s just a case of where we draw the line. Finally, he�s right to say that planning a big wedding will be a very stressful process.

44. Position 3:Both right & wrong Both of us are right and both are wrong. I�m right to want to include my extended families and friends on this joyous day, and I�m right to say that a special wedding would be a lifetime memory. He�s right that doing so could still leave some hurt feelings, and that it will postpone our house purchase. He also has a good point when he says that planning a big event could drive us crazy, and distract us from the real importance of joining our lives.

45. Position 4: The issue is not important After thinking about it, I�ve realized that getting married is different from being married. The decision about what kind of ceremony to have is important, but ultimately it won�t affect the kind of marriage we have. How we behave after we�re married will be much more important. And we are going to face a lot of decisions together � about children and jobs for e.g. � that will have much bigger consequences than this ceremony.

46. Position 5:Conclusion Before using the pillow method to think through all sides of this issue, I was focused on getting my way. This attitude was creating some feelings between my fianc� and I that were not what we should not be having as we face this most important event. I�ve realized that if one or the other of us �wins� but the result is injured feelings, it won�t be much of a victory. I don�t know what kind of

47. Position 5: con�t ceremony we will finally decide to have, but I�m determined to keep my focus on the really important goal of keeping our relationship positive and respectful.