Introducing Comparative Politics

1. Chapter 1 Introducing Comparative Politics

2. Introducing Comparative Politics

3. The Global Challenge of Comparative Politics (1 of 2) • Introduction to Comparative Politics studies how countries shape and are shaped by the world order created by watershed events • Three dates are markers for the current era of world politics: 1989, 2001, 2008 • 1989 – Fall of Berlin Wall • Failure of communism as alternative to liberal democracy • Fukuyama’s “The End of History” • Three Changes • End of bipolar world • Triumph of liberal democracy • Gateway to globalization • After 1989 globalization provided lens for analyzing politics within and among countries • September 11, 2001 forced rethinking of globalization

4. The Global Challenge of Comparative Politics (2 of 2) • 2001 – Attack on World Trade Center • Attention switched from economic and political impacts of globalization to terrorism and security • Resulted in changes to global alliances, foreign and domestic policies • Triggered United States response with lasting consequences • 2008 – Price of crude oil topped $100 per barrel • Oil fuels global economy • Impact harder on low income • Cost of food increased • High price reflects four factors • Finite supply of petroleum • Competition for petroleum has increased • Many major petroleum exporters have unstable regimes • More dollars needed to purchase oil • Greater attention to climate change and global warming

5. Globalization and Comparative Politics • Globalization and global era used to identify the growing depth, extent, diversity of cross-border connections • Economic • Movement of people • New applications of information technology • Globalization complicates politics and erodes ability of countries to control their destinies • New forms of international governance to regulate and stabilize the flows of globalization • Grassroots movements have challenged globalization • States can no longer act in isolation • Governments must address global problems nationally • Ability of states to control domestic outcomes and assert sovereignty impacted by regional and global forces • Stability impacted internally and externally

6. Making Sense of Turbulent Times • Study of comparative politics can increase understanding of current events • Understanding politics requires looking beyond a single national perspective • Comparing political institutions, values, processes in other countries teaches analytical skills • Introduction to Comparative Politics • Analyzes governments and politics of countries in detail • Identifies common themes in their development that explain long-term causes of changes and continuities • Cross-national comparisons and explanations on four themes: • Historical formation, internal organization, interaction of states within international order • Role of state in economic management • Spread and challenges of democracy • Sources and political impacts of collective identities • Four themes also useful to: • Indicate future political direction • Illustrate use of comparative politics

7. What – and How – Comparative Politics Compares • Comparison dates back to Aristotle • Categorized Greek city-states according to their form of political rule • Modern comparative politics refines and systematizes • Subfield within political science as well as approach • Distinction between comparative politics and international relations • Comparative politics studies domestic politics • International relations studies foreign policies and interactions among countries, role of international organizations, influence of global actors • Comparative approach focuses on selected institutions and processes when analyzing similarities and differences among countries

8. Level of Analysis • Comparisons useful for political analysis at several different levels • Specific institutions in different countries • State = key political institutions responsible for making, implementing, enforcing, adjudicating policies • Political legitimacy required for long term stability • Not all states are the same • Variance in organization of institutions • Variance in extent to which citizens share a common sense of nationhood

9. Causal Theories • Two critical units for comparative analysis: countries, states • One approach is to develop causal theories • Hypotheses expressed as “If X happens then Y will be the result” • Even without hypotheses try to identify similarities and differences to discover patterns • Limits on “scientific” political science • Two differences between “hard” and social sciences • Social sciences study people who have free will • Experimental techniques cannot isolate factors • Debate over whether or not social sciences should seek scientific explanations • Most comparativists agree on middle-level theory • Rational choice theory borrowed from economics • Individuals act strategically to achieve goals and maximize interests • Challenges to comparative politics • Complexity of subject matter • Pace of change • Impossibility of manipulating variables or replicating conditions

10. Themes for Comparative Analysis • Four themes used to organize information • Help explain continuities and contrasts • Help understand patterns that are applicable to group of countries or specific to a country • Highlight particular puzzle • Warnings • Four themes cannot capture the varied experience of politics • Builds on existing theory

11. Theme 1: A World of States (1 of 3) • States have been primary actors for about five hundred years • Individuals, international organizations, transnational corporations may play crucial role • Policies of international organizations represent balance of power among states • States have been affected by globalization • Increasing overlap between international relations and comparative politics • Two components • State’s relationship to international arena • State’s internal development • State is primary political institution in exercise of power • States cannot achieve aims autonomously • Technology, immigration, cultural diffusion impact domestic policies and challenge state supremacy

12. Theme 1: A World of States (2 of 3) • Global media increased knowledge about international developments • May increase demands on local governments to intervene • May cause local governments to be held to international standards of human rights and democracy • States may collapse when rulers are challenged or violate rule of law • “Failed states” • All states are experiencing increased pressure from external influences • States with greater level of economic development, military power, and resource base have a greater global influence and benefit more from globalization • Countries with fewer advantages more dependent on states and international organizations and benefit less from globalization

13. Theme 1: A World of States (3 of 3) • Puzzle: To what extent can powerful states preserve their autonomy and impose their will on other states? Or are all states losing their power to control policy-making and secure political outcomes?

14. Theme 2: Governing the Economy • Political economy: How governments affect economic performance and how economic performance affects politics • Ability to ensure adequate volume of goods and services affects state’s ability to maintain sovereign authority and control • How state “governs the economy” is key element in overall pattern of governance • Balance between agriculture and industry, competition in international markets, private versus government direction of economy, strategies to improve economic performance • No one right way to manage the economy • Agreement on practices that hinder economic development • Corruption, tax rates that discourage economic activity, failure to provide public goods • No consensus on policies that should be adopted • Some factors beyond state’s control • No clear measure of economic success • Puzzle: What is relationship between democracy and successful national economic performance?

15. Theme 3: The Democratic Idea • Democratic idea: claim by citizens that they should exercise substantial control over government and state decisions • Growth and stagnation of democracy • No one path to democracy • Necessary or sufficient conditions for democracy • Secure national borders, stable state, minimum level of economic development, acceptance of democratic values, agreement on rules, institutional design • Gulf between transition to and consolidation of democracy • Transition: authoritarian regime topple, democratic foundations established • Consolidation: adherence to democratic procedures and stable, durable democratic institutions • Comparative politics does not support one democratic point to which all countries will converge • Must examine incompleteness of democracy even in countries with long experience of democratic government • Puzzle: Is there a relationship between democracy and political stability?

16. Theme 4: The Politics of Collective Identity • At one time comparativists believed that social class was the most important source of collective identity • Believed groups would mostly pursue interests in ways that were not politically destabilizing • In many long-established democracies identity based on class declining but still important politically and economically • Non-class identities growing in significance • Politics of collective identities involves struggle to mobilize groups to be politically influential • Constant struggle among groups over relative power and influence • Political leaders often try to mobilize support by exploiting identity-related rivalries and manipulating issues • Issues about collective identities never fully settled • Identity-based conflicts appear in every multiethnic society • Puzzle: How does collective identity affect country’s distributional politics?

17. Classifying Political Systems • Over two hundred states with distinctive political regimes • Create typology to facilitate comparison within and between types of states • Most different case analysis to compare across types • Typologies are artificial constructs • Helpful to the extent that they allow comparison that provides useful knowledge • From World War I until 1980s consensus on “Three Worlds” • First World was Western industrial democracies • Second World was communist states • Third World was less economically developed • Lively debate as to alternative typology • Authors suggest basing typology on extent to which governments are democratic • Consolidated democracies • Transitional democracies • Authoritarian regimes

18. What Is the Meaning – or Rather, Meanings – of Democracy? • Rough consensus over minimum features • Free and fair elections to select highest public offices • Political parties free to compete • Government policies developed according to rules that include transparency, accountability • Civil and political rights and liberties for all citizens • Independent judiciary • Elected government exercises supreme power • Qualifications: • Does not claim electoral outcomes rational or equitable • No government has fully lived up to democratic standards • Interpretation, implementation of features politically contentious • Economic inequalities influence politics • Political institutions vary

19. A Typology of Political Systems • Criteria to distinguish between consolidated and transitional democracies • Whether or not democratic institutions have been solidly and stably established for a period of time • Consolidated when relatively consistent adherence to six democratic principles • Democratic institutions may only be façade in transitional democracies • Authoritarian regimes lack six democratic principles • Power highly concentrated in person, group, or institution • Varieties include communist party-states, theocracies, monarchies, military or personal dictatorships • Frequently claim to embody democracy • Both democratic and authoritarian states change and evolve over time in response to domestic and international influences • Some countries may straddle categories or political experiences may cause change in category

20. Organization of the Text • Country case studies selected: • Significance in terms of comparative themes • Provide interesting samples of political regimes, economic development, geographic regions • Studies make comparative references but primarily provide detailed descriptions and analysis of countries • Common section and subsection headings

21. 1: The Making of the Modern State • Overview of forces that shaped character of the state • “Politics in Action” uses specific event to illustrate recent history and highlight critical issues being faced • “Geographic Setting” locates country in regional setting and discusses related political implications • “Critical Junctures” looks at major stages and turning points in state’s development • “Themes and Implications” shows how past patterns continue to shape the current political agenda • “Historical Junctures and Political Themes” applies the core themes • “Implications for Comparative Politics” discusses significance of country for comparative politics

22. 2: Political Economy and Development • Looks at issues raised by theme of governing the economy • Analyzes how economic development has affected political change • “State and Economy” discusses organization of country’s economy • Emphasizes role of state in managing economy • Relationship between government and other actors • Analyzes the state’s welfare policies • “Society and Economy” examines social and political implications of the economic situation • Who benefits from economic change • How economic development creates or reinforces cleavages • “The Global Economy” considers the country’s global role

23. 3: Governance and Policy-Making • Describes state’s policy-making institutions and procedures • “Organization of the State” describes principles on which political system and distribution of power are based • “The Executive” describes key offices at the top of the political system • How they are selected and use their power to make policy • Analyzes bureaucracy, its relationship to the executive, its role in policy-making • “Other State Institutions” looks at military, judiciary, semipublic agencies, subnational government • “The Policy-Making Process” summarizes how policy is made and implemented

24. 4: Representation and Participation • Describes the relationship between the state and society • How do groups organize, participate, get represented, influence policy-making • “The Legislature” describes representation of interests and its role in policymaking • “Political Parties and the Party System” describes the organization of the party system and major parties • “Elections” describes the election process, recent trends in electoral behavior, significance of elections for participation and change • “Political Culture, Citizenship, and Identity” examines how people perceive themselves as members of the political community, nature and sources of political values and attitudes, how different groups understand their relationship to the state • “ Interests, Social Movements, and Protests” describes pursuit of political interests outside the party system

25. 5: Politics in Transition • Analyzes the major challenges reshaping the world and study of comparative politics • “Political Challenges and Changing Agendas” identifies the major unresolved issues facing the country and assess which will likely dominate in the near future • “Politics in Comparative Perspective” highlights implications of the country for the study of comparative politics

26. Key Terms & Suggested Readings • List of terms considered important for students of comparative politics to know • Terms are bolded the first time they appear in the chapter • Terms are briefly defined in the Glossary • Suggested readings emphasize books that would be interesting and accessible

27. Key Terms (1 of 26) • Critical Juncture: An important historical moment when political actions make critical choices that shape institutions and future outcomes. • Communist Party State: A type of nation-state in which the Communist Party attempts to exercise a complete monopoly on political power and controls all important state institutions. • Regime: A term that is generally synonymous with government or political system. • Cold War: The hostile relations that prevailed between the United States and the USSR from the late 1940s until the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991. Although an actual (hot) war never directly occurred between the two superpowers, they clashed indirectly by supporting rival forces in many wars occurring in the Third World.

28. Key Terms (2 of 26) • Liberal Democracy: A political system that combines capitalist organization of the economy with a democratic political system. • Ideology: A set of fundamental ideas, values, or beliefs about how a political, economic, or social system should be organized. Examples of ideology include capitalism, communism, and socialism. • Authoritarian: A system of rule in which power depends not on popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms. It is also characterized by near absolute power in the executive branch and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls. • Ethnic Cleansing: Concerted political violence akin to genocide applied to a minority population in a country or region, usually to force their expulsion or mass destruction.

29. Key Terms (3 of 26) • Genocide: The international and coordinated attempt to destroy a people, defined in national, religious, racial, or ethnic terms. • Globalization: The intensification of worldwide interconnectedness associated with the increased speed and magnitude of cross-border flows of trade, investment, and finance, and processes of migration, cultural diffusion, and communication. • European Union (EU): An an organization of European countries created in 1958 to promote economic integration and political cooperation among European states. At first, the EU’s mandate was primarily to reduce tariff barriers among West European states. Since then, more countries throughout Europe have joined the EU, and its powers have vastly expanded to include promoting common policies on immigration, technical standards, and economic and monetary regulation.

30. Key Terms (4 of 26) • World Trade Organization (WTO): A global international organization that oversees the “rules of trade” among its member states. The main functions of the WTO are to serve as a forum for its members to negotiate new agreements and resolve trade disputes. Its fundamental purpose is to lower or remove barriers to free trade. Most of the world’s countries belong to the WTO. To join, a country must agree to certain domestic and international economic policies. WTO membership is voluntary, but nations that don’t belong are at a great disadvantage in the contemporary global economy.

31. Key Terms (5 of 26) • Sovereignty: A state’s claim to exercise authority and effective political control of political decisions within a given territory. • Collective Identities: The groups with which people identify, including gender, class, race, region, and religion, and which are the “building blocks” for social and political action. Any given individual has a variety of identities, for example, a Muslim woman who is a member of the Kurdish ethnic group of northern Iraq. There is enormous variation regarding which collective identities are uppermost for particular individuals, which ones are influential within particular countries, and how effectively political systems process conflicts among collective identities. This question is among the most important issues studied in comparative politics.

32. Key Terms (6 of 26) • Comparative Politics: The study of the domestic politics, political institutions, and conflicts of countries. Often involves comparisons among countries and through time within single countries, emphasizing key patterns of similarity and difference. • Human Development Index: A composite number used by the United Nations to measure and compare levels of achievement in health, knowledge, and standard of living. HDI is based on the following indicators: life expectancy, adult literacy rate and school enrollment statistics, and gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity.

33. Key Terms (7 of 26) • Global Gender Gap: A measure of “the extent to which women in 58 countries have achieved equality with men in five critical areas: economic participation, economic opportunity, political empowerment, educational attainment, and health and well-being.” • Environmental Performance Index: A measure of how close countries come to meeting specific benchmarks for national pollution control and natural resource management.

34. Key Terms (8 of 26) • Corruption Perception Index: A measure developed by Transparency International that “ranks countries in terms of the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians. It is a composite index, drawing on corruption-related data in expert surveys carried out by a variety of reputable institutions. It reflects the views of businesspeople and analysts from around the world, including experts who are locals in the countries evaluated.” Range: 10 (highly clean) to 0 (highly corrupt).

35. Key Terms (9 of 26) • Freedom in the World Rating: An annual evaluation by Freedom House of the level of freedom in countries around the world measured according to political rights and civil liberties through “a multi-layered process of analysis and evaluation by a team of regional experts and scholars.” Countries are ranked in .5 gradations between 1.0 and 7.0, with 1.0–2.5 being “Free”; 3.0–5.0, “Partly Free”; and 5.5–7.0, “Not free.”

36. Key Terms (10 of 26) • United Nations: The association of some two hundred countries, headquartered in New York, charged with primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security and advancing the rule of international law and prospects for economic and social development. • Comparativists: Political scientists who study the similarities and differences in the domestic politics of various countries. • Keynesianism: Named after the British economist John Maynard Keynes, an approach to economic policy in which state economic policies are used to regulate the economy in an attempt to achieve stable economic growth. During recession, state budget deficits are used to expand demand in an effort to boost both consumption and investment, and to create employment. During periods of high growth when inflation threatens, cuts in government spending and a tightening of credit are used to reduce demand.

37. Key Terms (11 of 26) • Neoliberalism: A term used to describe government policies aiming to promote free competition among business firms within the market. Neoliberal policies include monetarism, privatization, reducing trade barriers, balancing government budgets, and reducing social spending. • Country: A territorial unit controlled by a single state. Countries vary in the degree to which groups within them have a common culture and ethnic affiliation.

38. Key Terms (12 of 26) • State: The state comprises a country’s key political institutions that are responsible for making, implementing, enforcing, and adjudicating important policies in that country. States have also been defined as those institutions within a country that claim the right to control force within the territory comprising the country and to make binding rules (laws), which citizens of that country must obey. • Executive: The agencies of government that implement or execute policy. The highest levels of the executive in most countries is a president or prime minister and cabinet. The top executive officeholders supervise the work of administrative departments and bureaus.

39. Key Terms (13 of 26) • Cabinet: The ministers who direct executive departments. In parliamentary systems, the cabinet and high-ranking sub-cabinet ministers (also known as the government) are considered collectively responsible to parliament. • Legislature: One of the primary political institutions in a country, in which elected members are charged with responsibility for making laws and usually providing for the financial resources for the state to carry out its functions. • Judiciary: One of the primary political institutions in a country, responsible for the administration of justice and in some countries for determining the constitutionality of state decisions.

40. Key Terms (14 of 26) • Bureaucracy: An organization structured hierarchically, in which lower-level officials are charged with administering regulations codified in rules that specify impersonal, objective guidelines for making decisions. In the modern world, many large organizations, especially business firms and the executives of developed states, are organized along bureaucratic lines. • Legitimacy: A belief by powerful groups and the broad citizenry that a state exercises rightful authority. In the contemporary world, a state is said to possess legitimacy when it enjoys consent of the governed, which usually involves democratic procedures and the attempt to achieve a satisfactory level of development and equitable distribution of resources.

41. Key Terms (15 of 26) • State Formation: The historical development of a state, often marked by major stages, key events, or turning points (critical junctures) that influence the contemporary character of the state. • Nation-state: Distinct, politically-defined territory with its own state, relatively coherent culture, economy, and ethnic and other social identities. • Political Culture: The attitudes, beliefs, and symbols that influence political behavior; often defined in terms of specific national political-cultural orientations.

42. Key Terms (16 of 26) • Rational Choice Theory: An approach to analyzing political decision-making and behavior that presupposes that individual actors pursue their aims in an effort to achieve the most positive net result. The theory presupposes equilibrium and unitary actors. Rational choice is often associated with the pursuit of selfish goals, but the theory permits a wide range of motivations, including altruism. • Middle-level Theory: Seeks to explain phenomena in a limited range of cases, in particular, a specific set of countries with particular characteristics, such as parliamentary regimes, or a particular type of political institution (such as political parties) or activity (such as protest).

43. Key Terms (17 of 26) • Dictatorship: A system of rule in which power depends not on popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms. It is also characterized by near-absolute power in the executive branch and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls. • Democratic Transition: The process of a state moving from an authoritarian to a democratic political system. • World Bank: (Officially the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development). The World Bank provides low-interest loans, no-interest credit, policy advice, and technical assistance to developing countries with the goal of reducing poverty. It is made up of over 180 nations. All members have voting rights within the Bank, but these are weighted according to the size of each country’s financial contribution to the organization. Thus, the United States and other highly developed countries have near veto power over the Bank operations.

44. Key Terms (18 of 26) • International Monetary Fund (IMF): The “sister organization” of the World Bank and also has over 180 member states. It describes its mandate as: “working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty.” It has been particularly active in helping countries that are experiencing serious economic problems. In exchange for IMF financial or technical assistance, a country must agree to a certain set of conditions that promote economic liberalization.

45. Key Terms (19 of 26) • North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): A treaty among the United States, Mexico, and Canada implemented on January 1, 1994, that largely eliminates trade barriers among the three nations and establishes procedures to resolve trade disputes. NAFTA serves as a model for an eventual Free Trade Area of the Americas zone that could include most nations in the Western Hemisphere.

46. Key Terms (20 of 26) • Institutional Design: The institutional arrangements that define the relationships between executive, legislative, and judicial branches of governments and between the central government and sub-central units such as states in the United States. • Political Economy: The study of the interaction between the state and the economy, that is, how the state and political processes affect the organization of production and exchange (the economy) and how the organization of the economy affects political processes.

47. Key Terms (21 of 26) • Laissez-faire: The term taken from the French, which means, “to let do,” in other words, to allow to act freely. In political economy, it refers to the pattern in which state management is limited to such matters as enforcing contracts and protecting property rights, while private market forces are free to operate with only minimal state regulation. • Sustainable Development: An approach to promoting economic growth that seeks to minimize environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources. Advocates of sustainable development believe that policies implemented in the present must take into account the impact on the ability of future generations to meet their needs and live healthy lives.

48. Key Terms (22 of 26) • Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total of all goods and services produced within a country that is used as a broad measure of the size of its economy. • Gross National Product (GNP): A broad measure of the size of the economy. Similar to gross domestic product but also takes into account income from foreign sources. The World Bank started using the term gross national income rather than gross national product in its reports and statistics in 2002. • Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): A method of calculating the value of a country’s money based on the actual cost of buying certain goods and services in that country rather than how many U.S. dollars they are worth. PPP is widely considered to be a more accurate indicator of comparing standards of living, particularly in countries at very different levels of economic development.

49. Key Terms (23 of 26) • Social Movements: Grass-roots associations that demand reforms of existing social practices and government policies. Social movements are less formally organized than interest groups. • Social Class: Common membership in a group whose boundaries are based on a common economic location, notably, occupation and income. Members of the same social class often share similar political attitudes. • Distributional Politics: The use of power, particularly by the state, to allocate some kind of valued resource among competing groups.

50. Key Terms (24 of 26) • Typology: A method of classifying by using criteria that divide a group of cases into smaller numbers. For example, in this book, we use a typology of countries that distinguishes among consolidated democracies, transitional democracies, and authoritarian regimes. • Most Different Case Analysis: The logic of most different case analysis is that, by comparing cases that differ widely, one seeks to isolate a factor or factors (termed the independent variable or variables) that both cases share—despite their differences in other respects—that might explain an outcome (or dependent variable).