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Notice from Psych Dept: Have you had a problem with WebCT? We are collecting information to help improve WebCT and would appreciate your help. If you experience a problem, please send the following information to Chris Goetz (cgoetz@ualberta.ca): • Course Number and Section: • Brief description of the problem: • Date and time problem occurred: • Steps taken to resolve the problem, including contacting the Help Desk (492-9400): • Was problem resolved? • How long did it take to resolve the problem?

By the end of class today, you will be able to: • Define correlation and identify graphical representations of correlations • Discuss the pros and cons of experiments • Understand statistical significance • Explain the factors important to Ethics Board reviews of research

Correlations (another type of descriptive statistics) Are two variables related?

Illusory Correlation(ex: Lincoln and Kennedy) Finding associations – the surface features appear to be similar But, no real association exists Can you think of additional illusory correlations? • “Bad things happen in threes”

“r” • Strength and direction of a relation between two variables can be assessed using the correlation coefficient. • Correlation represented by letter r • r ranges between -1 and + 1 (depending on direction of relationship) • Negative r: as A increases, B decreases (or vice-versa) • Positive r: as A increases, B increases (or vice-versa)

Under ideal conditions r = +/- 1 • BUT: Perfect correlation unheard of in psychology • That would mean that each variable exactly explains any variability in the other. When A changes by one unit, so does B. • The closer to -1 or +1, the stronger the r • What does it mean when the correlation equals 0? • No relationship

Positively correlatedan increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another variable.

Negatively correlatedan increase in one variable coincides with a DECREASE in another variable # of beers on Monday night relates to lower grades on Tuesday’s midterm

No Correlation • Can’t find a relationship b/w variables • The graph will look random because everyone’s going to have a different pattern of scores for the two variables.

Curvilinear Correlation What’s going on here?

Interpretation of Correlations • The X variable might influence or cause the Y variable. • The Y variable might influence or cause the X variable. • Another variable (i.e., third variable, that was not measured) influences both X and Y. • X and Y don't really correlate at all, and you just happened to observe such a strong correlation by chance.

Correlation does not necessarily equal causation There is a positive relationship between ice cream consumption and the number of drownings that occur (Neale & Liebert, 1986). There are three possible explanations for this positive relationship. What are they? • Eating more ice cream causes more drownings • When drownings increase, people eat more ice cream. • Third variable. Something else responsible: summer.

Experimental Testing • In an experiment, you get to control all of the variables. • Experiments require you to rule out alternative explanations.

Experiments • Advantage • Because of the high level of control, causality can be established. X causes change in Y • Disadvantage • May be artificial – can a lab experiment really relate to the real world?

Everything controlled in an experiment.Some variables left alone (but still randomly assigned to be equal), some are manipulated, some are measured.You can have MORE THAN ONE independent variable and MORE THAN ONE dependent variable. VARIABLES

VARIABLES • Independent Variable: The condition that is varied in order assess its effect upon some other variable (the dependent variable). • = the thing that’s manipulated • Dependent Variable: The variable that is believed to be dependent on (affected by) the independent variable. • = the thing that’s measured

Ex: Can drugs increase IQ? • How would you establish this? • You need at least 2 groups • Control Group • Experimental Group What can you recall from Psych 104 about each of these groups?

Control Group • IQ tested before intervention (why?) • Establish a baseline • This group receives a placebo • (ex: sugar pill) • Inert substance, or an activity that should not cause any change from baseline to testing • IQ tested after receiving placebo

Experimental Group IQ test prior to administering drug (baseline) This group then gets the drug (or experimental manipulation) IQ tested again • Note: • Independent Variable: Drug/No Drug • Dependent Variable: Measure of IQ

Statistical Analysis (ex: t-test) • Are there differences between groups? • Are there differences before testing? if yes, sample may not be random THERE SHOULD NOT BE ANY DIFFERENCES BEFORE TESTING, IF YOU WANT TO RELY ON YOUR RESULTS. • Are there differences after testing? (indicates that the drug affects IQ)

Are the results significant? • “Significant” • Means statistically meaningful • May not be clinically meaningful • Usually refers to a less than 5% likelihood that the findings occurred by random chance.

Quasi-Experiments • Many important variables are controlled, but not everything is under the researcher’s control. EX: Gender, Age  you cannot randomly assign either. • Common in Psychology. • Cannot determine causality (like experiments can), but can still determine relationships and make inferences about causality.

Brief Review • Which correlation is the strongest: .13 (b) .35 (c) -.47 (d) 0  -.47 • What is an advantage of the experimental design? • Establish causality • What is a placebo? • Sugar pill: not going to cause any change in whatever you’re measuring • What does a t-test assess? • Whether there are differences b/w groups

What does it mean to be ethical? “do the right thing”

Psychologists are committed to increasing scientific and professional knowledge of behaviour and people’s understanding of themselves and others and to the use of such knowledge to improve the condition of individuals, organizations, and society. Psychologists respect and protect civil and human rights and the central importance of freedom of inquiry and expression in research, teaching, and publication. They strive to help the public in developing informed judgments and choices concerning human behaviour. -Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association (APA, 2002).

What are Research Ethics? • The principles by which researchers decide the best way to balance the contribution of their research to human knowledge against potential damage to human welfare (Haslam & McGarty, 2003) • ethics are standards regarding the treatment of others • these standards apply to both research and clinical practice

The Nuremberg Code • 1947. • First international code of ethics • WW2 medical abuses • First attempt to provide standards for evaluating clinical research (ex: weigh benefits and costs before deciding the research should be conducted).

Government Policy • In Canada we have the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research with Humans • Three federal funding agencies follow the same guidelines: SSHRC, CIHR, NSERC

University Research Ethics Boards (REBs) • Different boards for different faculties/ departments • In Canada, all fall under Tri-Council policy • If one researcher on campus violates the Tri-Council policy, federal funding to ALL researchers can be revoked

Major Issues to Consider • Informed consent • Voluntariness and Inducements • Right to privacy • Discomfort and harm • Deception • Debriefing

Informed Consent Procedures • Free and informed consent lies at the heart of ethical research involving human subjects. It encompasses a process that begins with the initial contact and carries through to the end of the involvement of research subjects in the project. As used in this Policy, the process of free and informed consent refers to the dialogue, information sharing and general process through which prospective subjects choose to participate in research involving themselves. (Tri-Council Policy Statement Section 2)

Participants Must be Informed About: • Purpose of the research • Expected duration • Procedures • Right to decline to participate and/or withdraw at any point • Continuing and meaningful opportunities for deciding whether or not to continue to participate …

Participants Must be Informed About (II): • Consequences of withdrawing • Incentives for participation • Potential risks, discomfort, and/or adverse effects • Limits of confidentiality • Research benefits • How results will be disseminated • Contact information

Voluntary Participation and Inducements • Consent must be freely given • Undue influence includes inducement, deprivation, exercise of control or authority over prospective subjects • Noncoercive compensation is allowed • What do this imply to you? • Compensation for effort, time, and inconvenience

Participants’ Right to Privacy • Dignity and autonomy of human subjects is the ethical basis of respect for the privacy of research subjects. Privacy is a fundamental value, perceived by many as essential for the protection and promotion of human dignity. Hence, the access, control and dissemination of personal information are essential to ethical research. (Tri-Council Policy Statement Section 3)

Confidentiality Issues to Consider • Who has access to the data? • Who will be granted access if requested? • How long will data be kept? • How will confidentiality be safeguarded? • Passwords for computer files, assigning meaningless ID numbers, anonymity, consent forms locked in filing cabinets, etc.

Discomfort and harm • Always aim to minimize discomfort and harm • Strive to ensure that stress does not persist outside the experimental session • If researchers become aware that procedures are causing harm take steps to minimize that harm

Deception • Withholding information prevents fully informed consent to be given • Use of deception must be justified by the study’s significant value (nondeceptive alternatives are not possible) • Do not deceive if physical pain or severe emotional distress is expected • Deception is explained to participants as soon as possible

Debriefing • Provide participants with information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research • Correct any misconceptions

Tutorials http://www.mcmaster.ca/ors/ethics/tutorial/codes_tutorials.htm

Notice from Psych Dept : Have you had a problem with WebCT?