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Chapter 8 THINKING AND LANGUAGE

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON. P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE. Chapter 8 THINKING AND LANGUAGE. Section 1: What Is Thinking? Section 2: Problem Solving Section 3: Reasoning Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment Section 5: Language. 1. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON. Chapter 8.

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Chapter 8 THINKING AND LANGUAGE

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  1. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Chapter 8THINKING AND LANGUAGE • Section 1:What Is Thinking? • Section 2:Problem Solving • Section 3:Reasoning • Section 4:Decision Making and Judgment • Section 5:Language 1

  2. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Thinking is…… • 1. thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information. Made possible through the use of symbols, concepts, and prototypes. 2

  3. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Section 1: What Is Thinking? Question: What are the three units of thought? • THREE UNITS OF THOUGHT • SYMBOLS – objects or acts that stand for something else • CONCEPTS – mentally grouping together objects, events, or ideas that have similar characteristics such as dogs, horses, etc. • PROTOTYPES – examples of concepts that best exemplify that concept 3

  4. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE How do we solve problems? • 2. algorithms: a specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem. Ex: formulas. • 3. heuristics: rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us find the solution to a problem. They are shortcuts. Ex: C_ _ FF (cliff) 4

  5. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE • 4. incubation effect: When we arrive at the solution to a problem when we have not been consciously working on the problem. Ex: taking a break from math problem then suddenly coming up with the solution. • 5. mental set: the tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems. Can sometimes solve a problem, can sometimes cause a problem. • 6. functional fixedness: is the tendency tothink of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for. 5

  6. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE • 7. convergent thinking: though is limited to available facts, one tries to narrow thinking to find the single best solution. • 8. divergent thinking: one associates more freely to the various elements of a problem. One follows leads that run in various directions; perhaps one that will lead to the solution unexpectedly. 6

  7. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Section 2: Problem Solving Question: What steps can be used to solve problems? • THE ABCDEs OF PROBLEM SOLVING • Assess the problem • Brainstorm approaches to the problem • Choose the approach that seems most likely to work • Do it – try the most likely approach • Evaluate the results 7

  8. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Section 3: Reasoning Question: How do deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning differ? • DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING DIFFER • 9. Deductive Reasoning – a conclusion is arrived at by reasoning from a general principle to a specific conclusion • 10. Inductive Reasoning – a conclusion is arrived at by reasoning from many specific observations to a general principle • 11.confirmation bias: tendency to prove, or confirm, one’s hypothesis rather than disprove it. 8

  9. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment Question: What strategies can be made in decision making? • STRATEGIES IN DECISION MAKING • Weighing the Pluses and Minuses – choosing among goals or courses of action to reach goals by using a balance sheet • Shortcuts in Decision Making and Judgment – use heuristics or shortcuts • The Framing Effect – refers to a way in which wording affects decision making 9

  10. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Section 4: Decision Making and Judgment Question: What strategies can be made in decision making? • HEURISTICS OR SHORTCUTS • Representativeness Heuristic– making decisions about a sample according to the population that the sample appears to represent • Availability Heuristic – making a decision on the basis of information that is available in the immediate consciousness • Anchoring Heuristic– making a decision based on certain ideas or standards that a person holds and which hold an anchor for the person 10

  11. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Section 5: Language Question: What are the basic elements of language? • BASIC ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE • Phonemes – basic sounds of a language • Morphemes – units of meaning in language • Syntax – way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences 11

  12. HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON Prototypes Symbols Thinking Concepts Chapter 8 PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Question: What are the three units of thought? 12

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