Chapter Seven

1. ChapterSeven Efficiency, Motivation, and Quality in Work Design Thomson South-Western Wagner & Hollenbeck 5e

2. Chapter Overview • This chapter examines the following topics: • The Efficiency Perspective • Methods Engineering • Work Measurement: Motion and Time Studies • Evaluating Industrial Engineering and the Efficiency Perspective • The Motivational Perspective • Horizontal Job Enlargement • Vertical Job Enrichment • Comprehensive Job Enrichment • Sociotechnical Enrichment • Evaluating the Motivational Perspective • The Quality Perspective • Quality Circles • Self-Managing Teams • Automation and Robotics • Evaluating the Quality Perspective

3. Introduction • Work design: the formal process of dividing an organization’s total stock of work into jobs and tasks that its members can perform

4. The Efficiency Perspective • To achieve efficiency, companies minimize the resources consumed in providing a product or service • The efficiency perspective on work design is concerned with creating jobs that conserve time, human energy, raw materials, and other productive resources • It is the foundation of the field of industrial engineering, which focuses on maximizing the efficiency of the methods, facilities, and materials used to produce commercial products • Methods engineering and work measurement are two areas of industrial engineering that have had noticeable effects on the division of labor in modern organizations

5. Methods Engineering • Methods engineering is an area of industrial engineering that originated in Frederick Winslow Taylor's work on scientific management and attempts to improve the methods used by incorporating the two endeavors of process engineering and human factor engineering • Process engineering: assesses the sequence of tasks required to produce a particular product or service and analyzes the way those tasks fit together into an integrated job • Process engineers study what is to be produced and decide what role humans should play in its production • Human factors engineering (ergonomics): experts design machines and work environments so that they better match human capacities and limitations

6. Industrial engineers sometimes examine the motions and time required to complete each job Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Work measurement: area concerned with measuring the amount of work accomplished and developing standards for performing work of an acceptable quantity and quality Micromotion analysis and time-study procedures Micromotion analysis: analyzes the hand and body movements required to do a job Time-study techniques are used to measure the time actually consumed by job performance and sometimes specify the time that a job should take to complete Stopwatch time analysis Standard time analysis Work Measurement: Motion and Time Studies

7. Evaluating Industrial Engineering and the Efficiency Perspective • All industrial engineering methods attempt to enhance productivity by simplifying jobs • There is a danger that simplification will be carried too far • Workers may become bored, resentful, and dissatisfied • May result in dire health consequences • The simplification intended to enhance the efficiency of work processes may actually reduce that efficiency if carried too far

8. The Motivational Perspective • The motivational perspective has the central tenet that jobs should be designed in such a way that performing them creates feelings of fulfillment and satisfaction in their holders and suggests that fitting the characteristics of jobs to the needs and interests of people who perform them provides the opportunity for satisfaction at work

9. Horizontal job enlargement is based on the idea that increasing job range will reduce the repetitive nature of the job and thus eliminate worker boredom Job range: the number of tasks that a jobholder performs Job extension: an approach in which several oversimplified jobs are combined into a single new job Job rotation: workers switch jobs in a structured, predefined manner Vertical job enrichment is an attempt to increase job depth and is based on the work of Frederick Herzberg Job depth: amount of discretion a jobholder has to choose job activities and outcomes Herzberg found that certain characteristics of the work situation influenced employee satisfaction while others affected dissatisfaction Motivator factors Hygiene factors Horizontal Job EnlargementVertical Job Enrichment

10. Comprehensive Job Enrichment • Comprehensive job enrichment programs that combine both horizontal and vertical loading improvements are usually more successful at stimulating motivation and satisfaction • Many such programs are based on the J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham model

11. The Hackman-Oldham Model • According to Hackman and Oldham, jobs that are likely to motivate performance and contribute to employee satisfaction exhibit the following five core job characteristics: • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Autonomy • Feedback

12. The Hackman-Oldham Model • The five core job characteristics influence the extent to which employees experience three critical psychological states or personal, internal reactions to their jobs • Experienced meaningfulness of work • Experienced responsibility for work outcomes • Knowledge of results

13. The Hackman-Oldham Model • Each job characteristic influences a particular psychological state • Skill variety, task identity, and task significance affect the experienced meaningfulness of work • Autonomy influences the experienced responsibility for work outcomes • Feedback determines whether a worker will have knowledge of the results of his or her work • If workers experience all three states simultaneously, four kinds of work and personal outcomes are likely to result: • High internal work motivation • High-quality work performance • High satisfaction with work • Lower absenteeism and turnover • The model proposes that several individual differences determine whether the core job characteristics will actually trigger the critical psychological states • Knowledge and skill • Growth-need strength • Context satisfactions

14. Implementation • Hackman and Oldham developed the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS); this questionnaire measures workers’ perceptions of the five core job characteristics, the three critical psychological states, and certain moderating factors • The deficiencies identified by this questionnaire can be corrected in several ways: • Oversimplified jobs can be combined • Natural units of work can be created • Give workers the responsibility for establishing and managing client relationships • Vertical loading • Feedback channels

15. Sociotechnical Enrichment • To counteract the negative effects of oversimplified group work, mangers can use a sociotechnical enrichment approach • Originated in the early 1930s • Researchers from England’s Tavistock Institute set out to correct faults in coal mining processes • Results indicated that employees should work in groups that allowed them to talk with each other about their work as they performed their duties in order to increase satisfaction and performance • Contemporary sociotechnical designs normally create semiautonomous groups

16. The decision to adopt sociotechnical design principles has important implications for shop floor operations Contrast between a traditional assembly line and semiautonomous groups Sociotechnical work designs typically eliminate traditional assembly line operations All enlargement and enrichment techniques are aimed at designing jobs that satisfy the needs and interests of holders Alone, horizontal job enlargement and vertical job enrichment have largely failed to achieve this goal Methods incorporating both are more successful Some doubts have been raised about the validity of the Hackman-Oldham model ImplementationandEvaluating the Motivational Perspective

17. The Quality Perspective • Within the last 25 years, a third perspective on work design emerged in the search of new ways to improve the quality of goods and services produced in North America • Founders of the quality perspective include • W. Edwards Deming • Philip B. Cosby • Joseph M. Juran • These quality experts inspired Total Quality Management (TQM)

18. Quality Circles • Quality circles are small groups of employees (3-30 members) who meet on company time to identify and resolve job-related problems • QCs were invented in the U.S. and exported to Japan by Deming and Juran • Usually, QC membership is voluntary and remains stable over time • Managers have attempted to use QCs to counteract the negative effects of job specialization and simplification

19. Self-managing teams group employees together into permanent, empowered teams Management responsibilities of these teams include: Duty to continually assess the work of the team Redesigning jobs of team members Automation is a 3rd approach available to mangers to improve quality It has implications for the design of jobs Automation is used to eliminate repetitive, physically demanding, mistake-prone work Industrial robots Flexible manufacturingcells Self-Managing TeamsAutomation and Robotics

20. Evaluating the Quality Perspective • The quality perspective represents a hybrid of the efficiency and motivational perspectives on work design • Relevant evidence seems to support the conclusion that work design implementation stimulated by the quality perspective may have positive effects on workforce motivation, satisfaction, and productivity