Change

1. Change • Individual change • Ch. 31 – Job Instruction/Training • Organizational change • Ch. 32 – Managing Change • Monitoring change • Ch. 33 – Job Evaluation (not this time …)

2. Chapter 31 - Job Instruction/Training • Is Training the Solution? • Training is temporary. • Solve health and safety problems with permanent engineering solutions instead. • Training Needs Assessment • Identify drivers of training need. • May be external or internal. • What knowledge and skills will close the gap between actual and desired performance?

3. Reasons for Job Training • Static Job and Static Worker • Use training to improve the worker’s job knowledge. • Teach: • Better methods • New skills • New techniques for performing familiar tasks • Static Job and Changing Worker • Pre-train employees through cross-training. • Train potential employees. • Several workers may have to be trained when a job is created or eliminated.

4. Reasons for Job Training (cont.) • Changing Job and Static Worker • Train worker in new technology. • Have a product designer learn about ergonomics. • Changing Job and Changing Worker • Major changes occur in a job. • Lean production requires skilled, cross-trained workers. • Worker involvement in decisions requires greater education.

5. Designing Job Instruction • Specify Instructional Objectives • In a well-defined objective: • The desired performance is observable. • The desired performance is measurable. • The conditions of performance are specified. • Organize the Message • Planning: • Decide how to communicate (the medium). • Decide on the specific tactics. • Drafting: Use multiple drafts. • Revising: • Perform pilot tests with the target audience. • Revise the material based on the results.

6. Media Options • Kinesthetic • Learning by doing • Results in learning with long retention. • Use for highly repetitive psychomotor movements. • Remove dangers during practice. • Audio • Auditory messages are transitory. • Complex information is difficult to communicate • The message is paced by the sender at a fixed rate. • Visual • Text, representation of the object, or a combination • Linear or branching presentation • Communicate to individuals or group • Ease of modification • Distributed or massed practice • Location of instruction

7. Message Options • Pictorial Messages • Live demonstrations • Film/video • Still photographs • Still or animated drawings • Color or black and white • Consider image fidelity. • Text Messages • Words: Write so you cannot be misunderstood. • Style: Reduce the complexity of your writing. • Consider using job aids in writing (e.g. spell checker). • Format: Use tabular rather than narrative formats.

8. Tactics • Training (memorization) requires • Subject knowledge by the trainer • Knowledge of how to teach by the trainer • Training materials • Training time • A trainee willing and able to learn • Trainer options • “Sit by Nellie”: Observe a fellow worker. • Let the supervisor do the training. • Hire a teacher to train the workers. • Use self-instruction with good materials.

9. Tactics (cont.) • Programmed Learning • Define the exact behavior the trainee will learn to do. • Present the information in small increments. • Allow the trainee to determine the pace. • Give immediate feedback on results to trainee. • Observe trainee behavior and modify program if necessary. • Enhanced Training • Practice makes perfect. • Part-task training focuses on the difficult parts. • Training wheels permit the trainee to learn without injury or damage.

10. Tactics (cont.) • Simulation • Allows the trainee to gain a high level of skill before doing actual work. • Use when the cost of error in real performance is high. • Computerized simulation has become more accessible.

11. Evaluation • Purpose • Use evaluation feedback to improve the training process. • Training is a continuous process. • Techniques • Participant satisfaction • Learning outcomes • Attitude changes • Behavior or performance changes • Accomplishment of organizational goals

12. Job Aid Design • Considerations • Information readability • Information content • Information organization • Physical handling and environmental factors • Procedural Job Aids • Include assembly instructions, to-do lists, recipes. • Present information in a decision structure table. • Tables permit decisions to be made by experts without time stress. • Expert systems are computerized, complex decision structure tables.

13. Job Aid Design • Psychomotor Information • Present in pictorial instruction or on video. • Use words + pictures and allow for modifications. • Have copies at the machine and in the office. • Consider computerizing the material. • Limit Aids (for Inspection) • Have experts define what is acceptable or not. • Select a range of parts. • Arrange the parts in descending quality and mount or photograph. • Give a set to each inspector and operator.

14. Challenge of Change • Technological change interacts with social systems. • “The bottom line of engineering is implementation.” • “Where you stand depends on where you sit.” • Improve the odds through … • Communication • Teams

15. Stages of the Change Process • Frozen: stability • ‘assembly line’ production methods • Unfreeze: rethink goals, consider alternatives • Introduce cellular manufacturing concepts • Move: try new methods; feelings of insecurity • Cross-training, development of work teams, etc. • Unfamiliar skills, new expectations, etc. • Refreeze: “I like it”; “it works” • Teams coalesce, skills become familiar, etc. • Frozen: stability

16. Force Field Analysis

17. Area of Freedom The solution space is reduced to the area of freedom by economic, legal,technical, or policy factors.

18. Communication • Resistance to change may result from: • Lack of knowledge • Emotions • Communicate: • Why the change is being proposed • What the expected consequences are • Communication improves the solution and acceptance.

19. Teams (Small Groups) • Industrial democracy • Quality Circles • Power sharing

20. Team Composition • People doing the job under consideration • Skilled-trades (maintenance) people • Staff people (process engineers, health/safety specialists, first-line supervisors)

21. Key Aspects of Successful Teams • Management commitment • Training • Team composition • Information sharing • Activities and motivation • Evaluation

22. Negotiation • Allows people to change their concepts gradually • Eliminates clearly unacceptable designs • Improves communication within the group

23. Special Case: Quality Circles • Facilitator • Membership • Problem of • Horizontal barrier • Vertical barrier • Projects Staff /Supervisors Other depts. Line workers Support groups

24. Example Quality Circle Project Step 1: Select the project. • Volume switch defects on stereos Step 2: Analyze present conditions • Pareto analysis • Fish diagrams

25. Pareto Analysis 1 Switch rotation accounted for 70% of defects.

26. Pareto Analysis 2 • Uneven rotation accounted for 87% of rotation defects.

27. MATERIAL dimension OPERATOR G bearing content loose torsion 9 mm interval education tight setting nut knowledge F cover personality Reduce uneven switch rotation axis hole G bearing setting judgment G axis setting F cover setting inspection tools tool width INSPECTION TOOLS, JIGS Fish Diagram • Possible causes of switch rotation errors.

28. Example Quality Circle project (cont.) Step 3: Establish goals. • Reduce rotation defect rate • Develop implementation plan • Selectively attack problems

29. Goals and Schedule

30. Example Quality Circle Project (cont.) Step 4: Promote control activities • Monitor with np charts • Meet to determine causes and prevention • Develop checklists • Revise standard procedures

31. np Chart

32. Results • Defect rate reduced from 1.3% to 0.3% • Annual savings of 400,000 yen • Did not completely eliminate problem

33. Comments • Great effort to achieve small savings • Sophisticated techniques • Attitude toward quality problems • Communication

34. Proposing Change: Project Management • Define project scope. • Act as client’s servant. • Consult frequently. • Use experts. • Give the ‘buyer’ a choice.

35. Proposing change: Written proposals • Present convincing information. • Make an outline. • Know your decision maker. • Be concise. • Use preferred format and style.

36. Written Proposals (cont.) • Include economic information. • State assumptions specifically. • Make several drafts. • Use effective tables and graphs. • Proofread.

37. Oral Presentations • Have a clear objective. • Start and end on time. • Reach a conclusion. • Stand and move around. • Allow time for discussion. • Use visual aids.

38. Visual Aids • Overheads • Slides/PowerPoint • Video • Flipcharts

39. The Message • Organization • Tables vs. graphs vs. figures • Legibility