Topic 4 – Natural Resources

1. Topic 4 – Natural Resources A – Types of Resources B – Conventional Sources of Energy C – Alternative Sources of Energy

2. A – Types of Resources Resources and Reserves The Renewable / Non-Renewable Dichotomy Resources, Technology and Society Minerals

3. 1. Resources and Reserves • Context • A resource is something held in reserve that can be used for a purpose. • “Nature does not care”. • Three major categories of resources. • Natural resources • Derived from physiographical conditions. • Economic resources • Derived from human activities. • Geographical resources • Derived by spatial characteristics. NATURAL Minerals Biological resources Endowments GEOGRAPHICAL Location Human Capital ECONOMIC

4. 1. Resources and Reserves Explain what are the main types of resources.

5. Reserves and Total Resources Potentially Unrecoverable Sub-economic Price / Technology Total Resources Cost of Recovery Available Resources Reserves (Identified and recoverable) Exploration Unidentified Uncertainty Read this content

6. Types of Oil and Gas Reserves Read this content High-Medium Quality Quality Price and Technology Low Permeation Oil Tight Gas Sands Gas Shales Heavy Oil Coal Bed Methane Gas Hydrates Oil Shale Quantity

7. 2. The Renewable / Non-renewable Dichotomy Non-renewable Resources Renewable Resources Extraction Rate / Replenishment Rate Time Scale Geological Human Formed over a time scale involving geologic time. Once consumed, they disappear forever (unless recycled). Replenishment can occur on a human time scale (Years, decades, centuries).

8. 2. The Renewable / Non-renewable Dichotomy Infiniti Minerals (unless recycled) Millions Fossil fuels (oil, coal) Millennia Soils: 200 years (permanent vegetation cover) - 1000 years (mature). Erosion is an issue because growing populations do not provide adequate time for soils to regenerate fully. Centuries Forests: In some areas, the rates of deforestation surpass the natural ability of the forest to regenerate. Rainforest: 65-100 years. Years Food: Very short growth cycle (reason why preferred as food source). Rice (3-6 months). Chicken (12 weeks). Months Water: Rivers. Rain water. Aquifers. Irrigation has increased in many dry areas. Days

9. 2. The Renewable / Non-renewable Dichotomy

10. Non-Renewable Resources Curve Resource Peak Demand Usage Abandonment / transition Adoption Technology Time

11. Potential Depletion of Non-Renewable Resources Extract, use and discard 1 Recycle, technological improvements 2 Usage Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption, technological improvements 3 Time

12. 2. The Renewable / Non-Renewable Dichotomy • Renewable sources of energy are also dependent on non-renewable resources • Photovoltaic cells consume non-renewable resources. • Solar-thermal plants consume land and water from aquifers (arid areas). • Geothermal power consumes water from aquifers. • Wind energy consumes land, concrete, steel and rare earths (gearboxes). • All energy supplies require distribution systems (electric wires) that consume land and resources. • The term renewable energy is therefore misleading. Explain what the renewable / non renewable dichotomy implies.

13. 3. Resources, Technology and Society • Technology • Definition: • Processes according to which tools and machines are constructed. • Insure a control of the physical environment. • Comes from the Greek word teckne(manual expertise) and logia (field of knowledge). • Technology means the control, or the science, of manual expertise. • The more it is developed, the further the control and the transformation of matter is possible. • Concept of resource is tied to: • Technology (extent of available resources). • Technological change (growth in available resources and the efficiency of their use). • Culture controlling the technology (level of consumption).

14. 3. Resources, Technology and Society • Nuance • Technology requires the systematic usage of science and especially of the scientific method. • Relationship between science, technology and production (the market). • Scientific research helps discover or improve a technology. • Changes production while creating new goods available or permitting a more efficient way to produce. Research Development

15. 3. Resources, Technology and Society • The “Resource Curse” • Paradox: • Many resource-rich countries have the poorest population. • Particularly for resources that have a high concentration level (e.g. oil, diamonds, gold). • Resources as a power support structure: • Prone to authoritarian rule, slow growth, corruption and conflict. • Resources used to finance armies, corruption and patronage. • Civil wars to gain control of resources. • The “curse”: • Instead of resources being a vector for development and capital accumulation, they become a factor of inequality. • Under investment in infrastructures, utilities, health and education. • Inverse relationship between natural resources and democracy. What is the resource curse?

16. 3. Resources, Technology and Society • Resource loss due to destruction • Natural and manmade causes can destroy resources. • Natural hazards: • Earthquakes. • Weather hazards (hurricanes, tornadoes, flooding). • Forest fires. • Pollution: • Reduces the quantity and quality of natural resources such as water. • Conflicts: • Destroyed huge quantities of resources, material and human alike, throughout history. • Resources can be a cause of conflict (e.g. water rights).

17. 4. Minerals • The earth’s crust • Contains metallic and non-metallic minerals. • Unequal concentration and distribution because of geology. • Metals • Dominant mineral resources. • Ore • Rock in which a mineral can be mined. • Two factors for ore mining: • Market value of the mineral. • Concentration level in the ore. • There are ore rocks all over the world. • Only a small portion can be economically mined.

18. Composition of the Earth’s Crust

19. 4. Minerals • Metals • Iron: • Most common and used metal. • Iron deposits can easily be mined and smelted for the ore. • Used to make steel, a highly versatile metal. • Aluminum: • Second most used metal. • Light weight and strength. • Third most common element in the crust, but difficult to extract in its most common form (silicates). • Bauxite: easier form to extract aluminum but energy intensive (electricity). • Nonmetallic minerals • Vary wide variety and use. • Clay. Limestone. Potash (fertilizer). Silica sand.

20. 4. Some Minerals Used in Household Goods

21. B - Conventional Sources of Energy Sources of Energy Coal Petroleum and Natural Gas Nuclear

22. 1. Sources of Energy • ENERGY • Non-Renewable • Renewable • Chemical • Fossil fuels (Combustion) • Nuclear • Uranium (Fission of atoms) • Chemical • Muscular (Oxidization) • Nuclear • Geothermal (Thermal conversion) • Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen) • Gravitational • Tidal (Mechanical) • Indirect Solar • Biomass (Photosynthesis) • Wind and hydraulic (Mechanical) • Direct Solar • Photovoltaic cell (Conversion) • Solar thermal (Thermal conversion) Chemical Nuclear Gravitational Electromagnetic Mechanical Thermal Electrical World’s power consumption: 12 trillion watts per year (85% from fossil fuels) Read this content

23. Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg) Read this content

24. Energy and Work

25. Fuels Production Processes

26. World Energy Consumption, 1965-2016 Read this content

27. 2. Coal • Nature • Formed from decayed swamp plant matter that cannot decompose in the low-oxygen underwater environment. • Coal was the major fuel of the early Industrial Revolution. • High correlation between the location of coal resources and early industrial centers: • The Midlands of Britain. • Parts of Wales. • Pennsylvania. • Silesia (Poland). • German Ruhr Valley. • Three grades of coal.

28. 2. Coal • Anthracite (7%) • Highest grade; over 85% carbon. • Most efficient to burn. • Lowest sulfur content; the least polluting. • The most exploited and most rapidly depleted. • Bituminous (75%) • Medium grade coal, about 50-75% carbon content. • Higher sulfur content and less fuel-efficient. • Most abundant coal in the USA. • Lignite (18%) • Lowest grade of coal, with about 40% carbon content. • Low energy content. • Most sulfurous and most polluting.

29. 2. Main Coal Regions of the United States Lignite Powder River Basin (40%) Bituminous Bituminous Lignite

30. 2. Coal • Coal use • Thermal coal (about 90% use): • Used mainly in power stations to produce high pressure steam, which then drives turbines to generate electricity. • Also used to fire cement and lime kilns. • Until the middle of the 20th Century used in steam engines (“Steam Coal”). • Coking coal: • Specific type of metallurgical coal derived from bituminous coal. • Used as a source of carbon, for converting a metal ore to metal. • Removing the oxygen in the ore by forcing it to combine with the carbon in the coal to form CO2. • Used for making iron in blast furnaces (without smoke). • New redevelopment of the coal industry: • In view of rising energy prices. • “Clean Coal” technologies, less ashes but same CO2.

31. 2. Coal Consumption, 1965-2016 (in millions of tons of oil equivalent) Explain the patterns of global coal consumption.

32. Electricity Production from Coal Sources (% of total), Selected Countries, 1960-2015

33. 3. Petroleum and Natural Gas • Petroleum: The Global Fuel • Formation of oil deposits (biotic perspective): • Decay under pressure of billions of microscopic plants in sedimentary rocks. • “Oil window”; 7,000 to 15,000 feet. • Created over the last 600 million years. • Exploration of new sources of petroleum: • Related to the geologic history of an area. • Located in sedimentary basins. • About 90% of all petroleum resources have been discovered. • Production vs. consumption: • Geographical differences. • Contributed to the political problems linked with oil supply.

34. 3. Petroleum and Natural Gas • Petroleum Use • Transportation: • The share of transportation has increased in the total oil consumption. • Accounts for more the 55% of the oil used. • In the US, this share is 70%. • Limited possibility at substitution. • Other uses (30%): • Lubricant. • Plastics. • Fertilizers. • Choice of an energy source: • Depend on a number of utility factors. • Favoring the usage of fossil fuels, notably petroleum. • Towards peak demand?

35. West Texas Intermediate, Monthly Nominal Spot Oil Price (1970-2018) Read this content Third Oil Shock 3 Second Oil Shock B A 1 2 D First Oil Shock E C

36. World Annual Oil Production (1900-2016) and Peak Oil What is peak oil and how likely it is to take place? Read this content

37. 3. Petroleum and Natural Gas • Natural gas formation • Thermogenic: converted organic material into natural gas due to high pressure. • Deeper window than oil. • Biogenic: transformation by microorganisms. • Natural gas composition • Composed primarily of methane and other light hydrocarbons. • Mixture of 50 to 90% by volume of methane, propane and butane. • “Dry” and “wet” (methane content); “sweet” and “sour” (sulfur content). • Usually found in association with oil: • Formation of oil is likely to have natural gas as a by-product. • Often a layer over the petroleum.

38. 3. Petroleum and Natural Gas • Natural gas use • Mostly used for energy generation. • Transition in use: • Previously, it was often wasted; burned off. • The major problem is transporting natural gas, which requires pipelines. • Now more frequently conserved and used. • Considered the cleanest fossil fuel to use. • Gas turbine technology enables to use natural gas to produce electricity more cheaply than using coal.

39. 3. Petroleum and Natural Gas • Reserves • Substantial reserves likely to satisfy energy needs for the next 100 years. • High level of concentration: • 45% of the world’s reserves are in Russia and Iran. • Regional concentration of gas resources is more diverse: • As opposed to oil. • Only 36% of the reserves are in the Middle East.

40. 3. Proved Reserves of Natural Gas

41. 3. Petroleum and Natural Gas • Liquefied natural gas (LNG) • Growth of the global demand has created needs to move natural gas over long distances. • Liquid form of natural gas; easier to transport. • Cryogenic process (-256oF): gas loses 610 times its volume. • Value chain: • Extraction. • Liquefaction. • Shipping. • Storage and re-gasification.

42. 4. Nuclear Power • Nature • Fission of uranium to produce energy. • The fission of 1 kg (2.2 lbs.) of uranium-235 releases 18.7 million kilowatt-hours as heat. • A nuclear power plant of 1,000 megawatts requires 200 tons of uranium per year. • Heat is used to boil water and activate steam turbines. • Uranium is fairly abundant. • Requires massive amounts of water for cooling the reactor. • Relatively cheap: 2 cents per kWh (4 cents for coal).

43. 5. Nuclear Power • Nuclear power plants • 451 operating nuclear power plants (civilian) worldwide (2017). • Very few new plants coming on line: • Public resistance (NIMBY syndrome). • High costs. • Nuclear waste disposal. • 31 countries generate nuclear electricity: • About 15% of all electricity generated worldwide. • Required about 77,000 metric tons of uranium. • United States: • 99 licensed nuclear power plants; about 20% of the electricity. • Licenses are usually given for a 40 year period. • Many US plants will are coming up for 20 years license extensions. • No new nuclear power plant built since 1979 (Three Mile Island incident). • 5 new units by 2018. • China: • 39 nuclear power plants. • 19 under construction.

44. Civilian Nuclear Deployment, 2017 Operating reactors, stable Operating reactors, decided on phase-out Civil nuclear power is illegal No reactors Operating reactors, building new reactors Operating reactors, planning new build No reactors, building new reactors No reactors, new in planning

45. 10 Largest Nuclear Power Users, 2000, 2016

46. 4. Nuclear Power Generation • Uranium reserves • Canada and Australia account for 43% of global reserves. • The problem of “peak uranium”. • 20 years of reserves in current mines. • 80 years of known economic reserves.

47. C - Alternative Sources of Energy Hydropower Hydrogen Biomass Solar Wind

48. 1. Hydropower Generation • Nature • Generation of mechanical energy using the flow of water as the energy source. • Gravity as source and sun as the “pump”. • Requires a large reservoir of water (energy “storage”). • 95% energy efficiency. • Considered cleaner, less polluting than fossil fuels. • Cheapest source of energy: 1 cent per kWh. • Utilization • Water wheels used for centuries (grinding flour). • Used during the industrial revolution to power the first machines. • First hydroelectric plant; Niagara Falls (1879).

49. 1. World Hydroelectric Consumption, 1965-2016 (in Terawatt-hours)

50. 1. Hydropower Generation • Controversy • Require the development of vast amounts of infrastructures: • Dams; 20% are built for the purpose of hydropower. • Reservoirs. • Power plants and power lines. • Very expensive and consume financial resources; often over budget. • Have a lifespan of about 50 years before needing repairs. • Environmental problems: • The dams themselves often alter the environment in the areas where they are located. • Changing the nature of rivers, creating lakes that fill former valleys and canyons. • Impacts on fish migration and spawning areas. • Trap sediments. • Impacts climate change through decomposition in flooded areas. • Dams are being decommissioned in North America and Europe. • The cost of repairing a dam can be 3 times as high as the cost of removing it.