Motivation Ch. 8

1. Motivation Ch. 8 Goals and Plans

2. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 2 Basic Questions Why are goals useful for mobilizing action and increasing effort? How do we develop plans for the future? What role do intentions play in this process?

3. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 3 A Cognitive Approach to Motivation Demand leads to expectations Expectations ? non-random searches for satisfiers EX: Say your car needs a new set of spark plugs and you�ve never bought them before. Where do you go? Note that this search for satisfiers is not random, but planned according to knowledge and experience

4. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 4 Plans Mental representations of current and ideal behaviors, objects and events Discrepancies ? incongruity ? planning Plans are intended to: Remove incongruity Approach ideal states

5. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 5 T-O-T-E Cycle Test, Operate, Test, Exit According to the model, we: Detect mismatches (Test) Generate plans to eliminate them Instigate appropriate behaviors (Operate) Monitor progress (Test) Exit the loop

6. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 6 Corrective Motivation Plan are not static, but dynamic We are active decision makers We can do a number of things: Adjust ineffective plans Withdraw from plans altogether Work within situational constraints Increase effort

7. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 7 Discrepancy: Our Cognitive Fuel Discrepancies are one of the roots of cognitive motivational theory Created from perceptions of a situation being �less than ideal� Creates a sense of �wanting� Uses imagination and visualization

8. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 8 Two Types of Discrepancy Discrepancy reduction �I am not where I want to be� The current state is aversive in some way Can come from social comparison or internal comparison

9. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 9 Two Types of Discrepancy Discrepancy creation �I can be even better than I am� The current state is not necessarily aversive Not as reliant on comparison processes

10. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 10 Differences to Remember Discrepancy reduction = plan-based corrective action Discrepancy creation = goal-oriented motivation Discrepancy reduction is reactive, discrepancy creation is proactive Discrepancy reduction is feedback dependent

11. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 11 Goals as Motivators Performance with goals is better than performance without goals Between persons and within persons Motivation increases linearly with goal difficulty Constrained by ability Specific goals produce more motivation than vague goals

12. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 12 Difficulty and Specificity Goals should be difficult to achieve Diminishes negative factors like boredom, fatigue and distraction Increases persistence and effort Goals should be as specific as possible Directs attention and provides foundation for strategy Encourages active planning and plan modifications Reduces performance variability

13. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 13 Other Qualities of Good Goals Goals cannot be met without feedback Timely information about both results (outcomes) and performance (behaviors) Provides information used to modify plans and measure discrepancies Generates emotional reactions that can increase future motivation toward the goal

14. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 14 Other Qualities of Good Goals Goal acceptance - the decision to either accept or reject the goal Important idea when goals are given to others Goals that are accepted are more motivating If goals are rejected, motivation can sometimes turn from approach to avoidance

15. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 15 What Makes Us Accept Goals? Perceived difficulty � Easier goals more readily accepted all things being equal Note that ease is determined through a difficulty-ability matching process Participation � encourages ownership, fosters dissonance-related acceptance Hearing the other�s point of view and providing a rationale for the goal may be enough

16. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 16 What Makes Us Accept Goals? Credibility of supervisor Is the supervisor trustworthy? Supportive? Knowledgeable? Someone that is well-liked? Extrinsic incentives The incentive must be seen as valuable by the person

17. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 17 Some Cautions and Pitfalls Cautions Do goals generate motivation or just direct it? Be careful of the type of task onto which you apply a goal Pitfalls Goals can increase stress Goals can create opportunities for failure Goals can risk intrinsic motivation

18. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 18 How Far Is It, Again? Proximal (short-term) and distal (long-term) goals Rule of thumb: Proximal goals should be the pathways to distal goals Prox ? Prox ? Prox ? Prox ? Prox ? Dist

19. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 19 Goal Distance and Intrinsic Motivation Goal could be perceived as an extrinsic motivator Key issue is the initial level of intrinsic motivation Uninteresting tasks benefit from proximal goals, which help develop competency Interesting tasks benefit from distal goals; proximal goals are seen as controlling

20. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 20 Personal Strivings General personality dispositions rather than specific targets (goals) Related sets of goals fall under a personal striving �umbrella� EX: �Have a better attitude� is a good personal striving but a bad goal

21. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 21 Strivings and Subjective Well-Being The content of one�s personal strivings foreshadows long-term subjective well-being (SWB) Intimacy themes vs. power/achievement themes Intrinsic vs. extrinsic themes Approach vs. avoidance themes SWB is more about the striving rather than the attaining

22. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 22 Goals Into Action Mental simulations ? increasing focus on goal attainment Envisioning plans in advance may point to deficiencies Outcome-focused vs. process-focused? Implementation intentions � specifying the plan Help to overcome procrastination, increase persistence, and adjust to interruptions Anticipate potential roadblocks (�If X, I�ll do Y�)

23. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 23 Self-Regulation Metacognitive monitoring (knowing what you know) Three components: Forethought � goal setting and planning Action � behaving, receiving feedback Reflection � assessment of/adjustments to behavior

24. Motivation 3307 Chapter 8 24 Developing Competent Self-Regulation Observation of expert model Imitation, social guidance and feedback Internalization of other�s standards Practice self-control based on new standards