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METODE ESA: ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY ASSESSMENT DALAM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN APLIKASINYA

METODE ESA: ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY ASSESSMENT DALAM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN APLIKASINYA. SRUT+SMNO.PDKL.PPSUB.2013. . Effect of silver nanoparticles on Oryza sativa L. and its rhizosphere bacteria Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 88, P. 48-54 (1 Feb 2013)

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METODE ESA: ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY ASSESSMENT DALAM KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN APLIKASINYA

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  1. METODE ESA:ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY ASSESSMENTDALAM KAJIAN LINGKUNGANAPLIKASINYA SRUT+SMNO.PDKL.PPSUB.2013

  2. .Effect of silver nanoparticles on Oryza sativa L. and its rhizosphere bacteria Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 88, P. 48-54 (1 Feb 2013) FatemeMirzajani, HosseinAskari, Sara Hamzelou, MohsenFarzaneh, AlirezaGhassempour . Abstract Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely used as antibacterial and antifungal agents in agriculture. Nevertheless, these nanoparticles with newborn properties pose a potential risk to the environment, Due to contact with crops and bacteria that are beneficial to the soil. This study is based on the examination of the phytotoxic effects of AgNPs on Oryza sativa L. and some of its rhizosphere bacteria, by physiological and biochemical assays. In order to study the complex interaction of the AgNPs life expectancy that are mixed with culture medium, the incubation time for the fresh mixture, 7, 14 and 21 days old of AgNPs, on the seedlings growth was investigated. Results indicated that plant’s response to the treatment with AgNPs affected on the cell wall, and that with an increase in its concentration (up to 60 μg/mL). The obtained results of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) exhibited that those particles not only penetrated the cell wall, but they could also damage the cell morphology and its structural features. AgNPs treatment up to 30 μg/mL accelerated root growth and at 60 μg/mL was able to restrict a root’s ability to grow. The 30 μg/mL treatment had significant effect on root branching and dry weight. In contrast, shoot growth was more susceptible to the effects of AgNPs treatment. The root content for total soluble carbohydrates and starch demonstrated that despite stable starch content, total soluble carbohydrates showed the tendency to significantly decline in response to AgNPs. However, induction of root branching and photosynthetic pigments can attributed to AgNPs stress based on evidence from the production of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and local root tissue death. Nine isolates of the genus Bacillus selected and identified according to morphological and chemotaxonomic methods. The AgNPs treatment revolutionized the populations of bacteria as Bacillus thuringiensis SBURR1 was totally eliminated, and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens SBURR5 became the most populated one. Images from an electron microscope and the leakage of reducing sugars and protein through the bacterial membrane, similarly confirmed the “pit” formation mechanism of the AgNPs. Moreover the hypothesis from the growth curve study demonstrated that AgNPs may damage bacterium cell wall and transform them to protoplasts. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01476513………. 8/1/2013

  3. .Effect of silver nanoparticles on Oryza sativa L. and its rhizosphere bacteria Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 88, P. 48-54 (1 Feb 2013) FatemeMirzajani, HosseinAskari, Sara Hamzelou, MohsenFarzaneh, AlirezaGhassempour Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01476513………. 8/1/2013

  4. . Assessment of the environmental risk of long-chain aliphatic alcohols S.E. Belangera, , , H. Sandersonb, 1, P.R. Fiskc, C. Schäfersd, S.M. Mudgee, A. Willingf, Y. Kasaig, A.M. Nielsenh, S.D. Dyera, R. Toy Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 72, Issue 4, May 2009, Pages 1006–1015 An environmental assessment of long-chain alcohols (LCOH) has recently been conducted under the OECD SIDS High Production Volume (HPV) Program via the Global International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA) Aliphatic Alcohols Consortium. LCOH are used primarily as intermediates, as a precursor to alcohol-based surfactants and as alcohol per se in a wide variety of consumer product applications. Global production volume is approximately 1.58 million metric tonnes. The OECD HPV assessment covers linear to slightly branched LCOH ranging from 6 to 22 alkyl carbons (C). LCOH biodegrade exceptionally rapidly in the environment (half-lives on the order of minutes); however, due to continuous use and distribution to wastewater treatment systems, partitioning properties, biodegradation of alcohol-based surfactants, and natural alcohol sources, LCOH are universally detected in wastewater effluents. An environmental risk assessment of LCOH is presented here by focusing on the most prevalent and toxic members of the linear alcohols, specifically, from C12−15. The assessment includes environmental monitoring data for these chain lengths in final effluents of representative wastewater treatment plants and covers all uses of alcohol (i.e., the use of alcohol as a substance and as an intermediate for the manufacturing of alcohol-based surfactants). The 90th percentile effluent discharge concentration of 1.979 μg/L (C12−C15) was determined for wastewater treatment plants in 7 countries. Chronic aquatic toxicity studies with Daphnia magna demonstrated that between C13 and C15 LCOH solubility became a factor and that the structure–activity relationship was characterized by a toxicity maximum between C13 and C14. Above C14 the LCOH was less toxic and become un-testable due to insolubility. Risk quotients based on a toxic units (TU) approach were determined for various scenarios of exposure and effects extrapolation. The global average TU ranged from 0.048 to 0.467 depending on the scenario employed suggesting a low risk to the environment. The fact that environmental exposure calculations include large fractions of naturally derived alcohol from animal, plant, and microbially mediated biotransformations further supports a conclusion of low risk. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651308002108 ………. 8/1/2013

  5. . Assessment of the environmental risk of long-chain aliphatic alcohols S.E. Belangera, , , H. Sandersonb, 1, P.R. Fiskc, C. Schäfersd, S.M. Mudgee, A. Willingf, Y. Kasaig, A.M. Nielsenh, S.D. Dyera, R. Toy Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 72, Issue 4, May 2009, Pages 1006–1015 Potential sources of fatty (long chain) alcohols in the aquatic environment. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651308002108 ………. 8/1/2013

  6. . Assessment of the environmental risk of long-chain aliphatic alcohols S.E. Belangera, , , H. Sandersonb, 1, P.R. Fiskc, C. Schäfersd, S.M. Mudgee, A. Willingf, Y. Kasaig, A.M. Nielsenh, S.D. Dyera, R. Toy Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 72, Issue 4, May 2009, Pages 1006–1015  Conceptual diagram of developing toxic unit (TU) predictions for LCOH environmental risk characterization. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651308002108 ………. 8/1/2013

  7. . Assessment of the environmental risk of long-chain aliphatic alcohols S.E. Belangera, , , H. Sandersonb, 1, P.R. Fiskc, C. Schäfersd, S.M. Mudgee, A. Willingf, Y. Kasaig, A.M. Nielsenh, S.D. Dyera, R. Toy Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 72, Issue 4, May 2009, Pages 1006–1015 Cumulative frequency distribution of final effluent concentrations before (total, unadjusted) and after (total adjusted) correcting for bioavailability, dilution and in-stream mineralization of parent alcohol. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651308002108 ………. 8/1/2013

  8. . Assessment of the environmental risk of long-chain aliphatic alcohols S.E. Belangera, , , H. Sandersonb, 1, P.R. Fiskc, C. Schäfersd, S.M. Mudgee, A. Willingf, Y. Kasaig, A.M. Nielsenh, S.D. Dyera, R. Toy Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 72, Issue 4, May 2009, Pages 1006–1015 . Cumulative frequency distribution of TU determinations for LCOH for the 32 monitored sites in Europe, Canada and the US. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651308002108 ………. 8/1/2013

  9. . Assessing, mapping and validating site-specific ecotoxicological risk for pesticide mixtures: A case study for small scale hot spots in aquatic and terrestrial environments Claudia Vaja, StefaniaBarmaza, Peter BorgenSørensenb, David Spurgeonc, Marco Vighi Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 74, Issue 8, November 2011, Pages 2156–2166 Mixture toxicity is a real world problem and as such requires risk assessment solutions that can be applied within different geographic regions, across different spatial scales and in situations where the quantity of data available for the assessment varies. Moreover, the need for site specific procedures for assessing ecotoxicological risk for non-target species in non-target ecosystems also has to be recognised. The work presented in the paper addresses the real world effects of pesticide mixtures on natural communities. Initially, the location of risk hotspots is theoretically estimated through exposure modelling and the use of available toxicity data to predict potential community effects. The concept of Concentration Addition (CA) is applied to describe responses resulting from exposure of multiple pesticides The developed and refined exposure models are georeferenced (GIS-based) and include environmental and physico-chemical parameters, and site specific information on pesticide usage and land use. As a test of the risk assessment framework, the procedures have been applied on a suitable study areas, notably the River Meolo basin (Northern Italy), a catchment characterised by intensive agriculture, as well as comparative area for some assessments. Within the studied areas, the risks for individual chemicals and complex mixtures have been assessed on aquatic and terrestrial aboveground and belowground communities. Results from ecological surveys have been used to validate these risk assessment model predictions. Value and limitation of the approaches are described and the possibilities for larger scale applications in risk assessment are also discussed. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651311001989………. 8/1/2013

  10. . Assessing, mapping and validating site-specific ecotoxicological risk for pesticide mixtures: A case study for small scale hot spots in aquatic and terrestrial environments Claudia Vaja, StefaniaBarmaza, Peter BorgenSørensenb, David Spurgeonc, Marco Vighi Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 74, Issue 8, November 2011, Pages 2156–2166 Scheme of the general procedure for assessing and validating pesticide mixture risk. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651311001989………. 8/1/2013

  11. . Assessing, mapping and validating site-specific ecotoxicological risk for pesticide mixtures: A case study for small scale hot spots in aquatic and terrestrial environments Claudia Vaja, StefaniaBarmaza, Peter BorgenSørensenb, David Spurgeonc, Marco Vighi Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 74, Issue 8, November 2011, Pages 2156–2166  Scheme of the procedures for pesticide risk assessment of pollinators. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651311001989………. 8/1/2013

  12. . Assessing, mapping and validating site-specific ecotoxicological risk for pesticide mixtures: A case study for small scale hot spots in aquatic and terrestrial environments Claudia Vaja, StefaniaBarmaza, Peter BorgenSørensenb, David Spurgeonc, Marco Vighi Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 74, Issue 8, November 2011, Pages 2156–2166 .  Comparison between predicted and measured concentrations for terbuthylazine and metolachlor in Meolo river water, Northern Italy. The parameters of the correlations are the following: terbuthylazine: y=1.46x−0.09; R2=0.93; metolachlor: y=1.57x−0.03; R2=0.88. The line represents theoretical perfect fit. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651311001989………. 8/1/2013

  13. . Assessing, mapping and validating site-specific ecotoxicological risk for pesticide mixtures: A case study for small scale hot spots in aquatic and terrestrial environments Claudia Vaja, StefaniaBarmaza, Peter BorgenSørensenb, David Spurgeonc, Marco Vighi Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Volume 74, Issue 8, November 2011, Pages 2156–2166 . PECs (mg/m2) in soil within the vineyard from the beginning of the plant protection product applications (28 April 2008), until the end of the productive season (30 September 2008). Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651311001989………. 8/1/2013

  14. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 Environmental health assessment covers a broad area: virtually all systematic analysis to support decision making on issues relevant to environment and health. Consequently, various different approaches have been developed and applied for different needs within the broad field. In this paper we explore the plurality of approaches and attempt to reveal the state-of-the-art in environmental health assessment by characterizing and explicating the similarities and differences between them. A diverse, yet concise, set of approaches to environmental health assessment is analyzed in terms of nine attributes: purpose, problem owner, question, answer, process, use, interaction, performance and establishment. The conclusions of the analysis underline the multitude and complexity of issues in environmental health assessment as well as the variety of perspectives taken to address them. In response to the challenges, a tendency towards developing and applying more inclusive, pragmatic and integrative approaches can be identified. The most interesting aspects of environmental health assessment are found among these emerging approaches: (a) increasing engagement between assessment and management as well as stakeholders, (b) strive for framing assessments according to specific practical policy needs, (c) integration of multiple benefits and risks, as well as (d) explicit incorporation of both scientific facts and value statements in assessment. However, such approaches are yet to become established, and many contemporary mainstream environmental health assessment practices can still be characterized as relatively traditional risk assessment. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  15. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 Outline of relevant issues to address in environmental health assessment and coverage of certain common approaches to risk and impact assessment. The figure is adapted from a framework for integrated environmental health impact assessment (Briggs, 2008). Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  16. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55  The Red Book risk assessment process. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  17. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 The analytic-deliberative risk decision process Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  18. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 The IRGC risk governance framework. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  19. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 The chemical safety assessment process in REACH. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  20. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 The Finnish environmental impact assessment procedure (YVA). Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  21. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 The health impact assessment process as defined by WHO. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  22. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55  The integrated environmental health impact assessment process. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  23. .State of the art in benefit–risk analysis: Environmental health M.V. Pohjolaa, , , O. Leinoa, V. Kollanusa, J.T. Tuomistoa, H. Gunnlaugsdóttirb, F. Holmc, N. Kalogerasd, J.M. Luteijne, S.H. Magnússonb, G. Odekerkend, M.J. Tijhuisd, f, Ø. Uelandg, B.C. Whiteh, H. Verhagen Food and Chemical Toxicology. Volume 50, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 40–55 Collaborative knowledge creation in open assessment. Adapted from an illustration of collaborative knowledge building with wikis (Cress and Kimmerle, 2008). Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278691511002481 ………. 8/1/2013

  24. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 Problem: Tragic marine and offshore accidents have caused serious consequences including loss of lives, loss of property, and damage of the environment. Method: A proactive, risk-based “goal setting” regime is introduced to the marine and offshore industries to increase the level of safety. Discussion: To maximize marine and offshore safety, risks need to be modeled and safety-based decisions need to be made in a logical and confident way. Risk modeling and decision-making tools need to be developed and applied in a practical environment. Summary: This paper describes both the offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships in detail with particular reference to the design aspects. The current practices and the latest development in safety assessment in both the marine and offshore industries are described. The relationship between the offshore safety case approach and formal ship safety assessment is described and discussed. Three examples are used to demonstrate both the offshore safety case approach and formal ship safety assessment. The study of risk criteria in marine and offshore safety assessment is carried out. The recommendations on further work required are given. Impact on industry: This paper gives safety engineers in the marine and offshore industries an overview of the offshore safety case approach and formal ship safety assessment. The significance of moving toward a risk-based “goal setting” regime is given. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  25. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 The HSE framework for decisions on the tolerability of risk. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  26. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 Relationships between offshore safety regulations. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  27. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 The five key elements of the safety case concepts. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  28. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 The detailed UKOOA framework. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  29. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 Risk contribution tree for fire. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  30. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 Generic fishing vessel. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  31. . Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships J Wang Journal of Safety Research. Vol 33, Issue 1, Spring 2002, Pages 81–115 The proposed approach. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022437502000051………. 8/1/2013

  32. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 Assessment of risks to aquatic organisms is important in the registration procedures for pesticides in industrialised countries. This risk assessment consists of two parts: (i) assessment of effects to these organisms derived from ecotoxicological experiments (=effect assessment), and (ii) assessment of concentration levels in relevant environmental compartments resulting from pesticide application (=exposure assessment). Current procedures lack a clear conceptual basis for the interface between the effect and exposure assessments which may lead to a low overall scientific quality of the risk assessment. This interface is defined here as the type of concentration that gives the best correlation to ecotoxicological effects and is called the ecotoxicologically relevant concentration (ERC). Definition of this ERC allows the design of tiered effect and exposure assessments that can interact flexibly and efficiently. There are two distinctly different exposure estimates required for pesticide risk assessment: that related to exposure in ecotoxicological experiments and that related to exposure in the field. The same type of ERC should be used consistently for both types of exposure estimates. Decisions are made by comparing a regulatory acceptable concentration (=RAC) level or curve (i.e., endpoint of the effect assessment) with predicted environmental concentration (=PEC) levels or curves (endpoint of the exposure assessment). For decision making based on ecotoxicological experiments with time-variable concentrations a tiered approach is proposed that compares (i) in a first step single RAC and PEC levels based on conservative assumptions, (ii) in a second step graphically RAC and PEC curves (describing the time courses of the RAC and PEC), and (iii) in a third step time-weighted average RAC and PEC levels. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  33. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 F Tiered effect and exposure flow charts for a risk assessment addressing a protection aim ‘X’ which needs exposure estimates of an ecotoxicologically relevant concentration (ERC) ‘Y’ as indicated by the large arrow. The boxes E-1 to E-4 are four effect tiers and the boxes F-1 to F-4 are four tiers for assessment of exposure in the field (‘F’ from ‘field’). Downward arrows indicate movement to a higher tier. Horizontal arrows from the exposure to the effect flow chart indicate delivery of field exposure estimates for comparison with effect concentrations in the effect flow chart. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  34. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 Schematic representation of activities in any combination of tiers of the effect and exposure flow chart. The dashed-line and dotted-line boxes indicate the division of the activities over the effect and exposure assessment illustrating that there are two distinctly different exposure assessments (‘A’ and ‘B’) in the risk assessment procedure (activity A being part of exposure tier F that delivers field exposure and activity B being part of the effect tier E). Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  35. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 Diagrams of two different conceptual models of possible routes through combined effect and exposure flow charts. The boxes E-1 to E-4 are four effect tiers and the boxes F-1 to F-4 are four tiers for assessment of exposure in the field. Part A shows routes in which each effect tier is at the same level of sophistication as the exposure tier (called the ‘ladder’ model). Part B shows all possible routes (called the ‘criss-cross’ model). Downward arrows indicate movement to a higher tier. Arrows from right to left indicate delivery of field exposure estimates to the indicated effect tiers. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  36. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 Flow chart for handling the procedure in the box ‘compare and decide’ of the effect tier shown in Fig. 2 in case of a time-variable exposure concentration in the ecotoxicological experiment. The numbers 1, 2, and 3 indicate the numbers of the three steps. RAC is ‘regulatory acceptable concentration’, PEC is ‘predicted environmental concentration’, TWA is ‘time-weighted average’. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  37. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 Maxima of time-weighted average (TWA) linuron concentrations in surface water calculated for the R1-stream FOCUS scenario as a function of the length of the time window compared with the TWA concentration derived from a RAC curve derived from a mesocosm study by Van Geest et al. (1999) using effects of class 1 as a basis. The scenario concentrations are output from the TOXSWA model and the line from the RAC curve was obtained by numerical integration of the time course of concentrations measured by Van Geest et al. (1999). Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  38. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 Linuron concentrations in surface water as a function of time as calculated with the TOXSWA model for the D1-ditch FOCUS Step 3 surface water scenario compared with an effect-class-1 and an effect-class-3 RAC curve as derived from the mesocosm experiment by Van Geest et al. (1999). Time 0 is 1 January 1982. The arrow indicates the application time of linuron in the TOXSWA simulations. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  39. .Conceptual model for improving the link between exposure and effects in the aquatic risk assessment of pesticides J.J.T.I. Boesten, H. Köpp, , P .I. Adriaanse, T.C.M. Brock, V.E. Forbes Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Vol 66, Issue 3, March 2007, Pages 291–308 Proposed system of effect and exposure flow charts for aquatic risk assessment at EU level. The two solid arrows from the box ‘Protect biodiversity of aquatic life in EU’ indicate the need to assess always both short-term and long-term risks. The dashed arrow indicates the possibility for the risk manager to ignore short-term risks if long-term risks are absent. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651306001990 ………. 8/1/2013

  40. .A subjective modelling tool applied to formal ship safety assessment Jin Wang Ocean Engineering. Volume 27, Issue 10, October 2000, Pages 1019–1035 Formal safety assessment of ships has attracted great attention over the last few years. In this paper, following a brief review of the current status of marine safety assessment, formal ship safety assessment is discussed in detail. A subjective safety-analysis-based decision-making framework is then proposed for formal ship safety assessment in situations where a high level of uncertainty is involved. In the framework, failure events at the lowest level are modelled using fuzzy sets and safety synthesis at the different levels of a hierarchy is carried out using evidential reasoning. Multiple safety analysts' judgements can also be synthesised using the framework. Subjective safety and cost assessments obtained can finally be combined to produce the preference degrees associated with the design/operation options for ranking purposes. An example is used to demonstrate the framework. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029801899000372 ………. 8/1/2013

  41. .A subjective modelling tool applied to formal ship safety assessment Jin Wang Ocean Engineering. Volume 27, Issue 10, October 2000, Pages 1019–1035  A hierarchy of subjective safety modelling. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029801899000372 ………. 8/1/2013

  42. .A subjective modelling tool applied to formal ship safety assessment Jin Wang Ocean Engineering. Volume 27, Issue 10, October 2000, Pages 1019–1035 .  A hierarchical safety-based design/operation option ranking framework. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029801899000372 ………. 8/1/2013

  43. .A subjective modelling tool applied to formal ship safety assessment Jin Wang Ocean Engineering. Volume 27, Issue 10, October 2000, Pages 1019–1035 Ranking of the design options. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029801899000372 ………. 8/1/2013

  44. .Application of fuzzy theory and PROMETHEE technique to evaluate suitable ecotechnology method: A case study in Shihmen Reservoir Watershed, Taiwan Wen-Chieh Chou,Wen-Tzu Lin, Chao-Yuan Lin Ecological Engineering. Volume 31, Issue 4, 3 December 2007, Pages 269–280 . With the increase in industrial development and improper land uses, Taiwan has faced the extinction crisis and is seeing the signs of nature, revenge in the forms of frequent landslides, floods, and debris flows in recent years. The government has strongly promoted the concept of ecotechnology in the hope of maintaining the ecosystem and its integrity. However, the application of ecotechnology is still in its infancy, so there is currently no objective evaluation standard to assess its effectiveness. Deficiencies in the scientific approach to quantify the results are due to current disputes and bottlenecks in its implementation. In order to seek reasonable and feasible methods to overcome the deficiencies in the implementation of the scientific approach, this study collected domestic and international ecological evaluation models to develop innovative processes that utilize ecological, safety, and cost indices. First, the commonly used ecotechnology methods for river embankment were acquired from the governmental departments. Second, the ecological, safety and cost indices for the acquired ecotechnology methods and construction sites were analyzed and quantified using fuzzy theory. Third, indices of ecotechnology methods were linked with those of construction sites for the PROMETHEE technique evaluation for suitable ecotechnology method selection. A practical construction case located in Shihmen reservoir watershed was chosen for evaluation and verification. The results show that the developed model can provide useful information for decision making while performing ecotechnology engineering. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857407001656………. 8/1/2013

  45. .Application of fuzzy theory and PROMETHEE technique to evaluate suitable ecotechnology method: A case study in Shihmen Reservoir Watershed, Taiwan Wen-Chieh Chou,Wen-Tzu Lin, Chao-Yuan Lin Ecological Engineering. Volume 31, Issue 4, 3 December 2007, Pages 269–280 The evaluation processes for ecological index, safety index, and cost index. Diunduhdari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857407001656………. 8/1/2013

  46. .Synthesis of ecosystemic and ecoscreeningmodelling in solving problems of ecological safety N.V Solovjova Ecological Modelling. Vol. 124, Issue 1, 1 December 1999, Pages 1–10 The traditional approach to modeling the state of complex ecological systems assumes realization of a series of numerical experiments with a dynamic model. The results obtained are difficult to evaluate for multicomponent systems. To give an integrated estimation of the state of an ecosystem as a whole is quite a complicated task. The synthesis of dynamic modeling for aggregated and averaged components of an ecosystem and ecoscreening approach for risk estimation is one way of overcoming this difficulty. The annual variations of the basic components of the ecological system (concentrations of phytoplankton, zooplankton, macroalgae, fish, nutrients, suspended and dissolved organic matter, and hydro-optical characteristics) are calculated from full dynamic modelling. The annual variations of ecological risk from effects on an ecological system are calculated based on the synthesis of the two approaches. This method was developed for prediction of variations of risk estimation for the north-western Black Sea shelf. The annual variations of risk are calculated when the ecological system is submitted to regular pollution and emergency situations. More accurate estimation of risk is reached by step wise application of each one of the approaches. Diunduhdari http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304380099001222 ………. 8/1/2013

  47. .Synthesis of ecosystemic and ecoscreeningmodelling in solving problems of ecological safety N.V Solovjova Ecological Modelling. Volume 124, Issue 1, 1 December 1999, Pages 1–10 Hierarchic scheme for a marine ecological system. Diunduhdari http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304380099001222 ………. 8/1/2013

  48. .Synthesis of ecosystemic and ecoscreeningmodelling in solving problems of ecological safety N.V Solovjova Ecological Modelling. Volume 124, Issue 1, 1 December 1999, Pages 1–10 The co-ordination of anthropogenous load with a natural annual variation of risk for ‘adverse’ (a) and ‘favourable’ (b, c) natural conditions. ▧, the area of allowable anthropogenous load for ecological system. Diunduhdari: ………. 8/1/2013

  49. Managing the Risks of Natural Hazards in Switzerland - An Alpine Country Peter Greminger Director of Protection Forest and Natural Hazards Sector, Swiss Forest Agency, Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), CH-3003 Berne, Switzerland. Email: peter.greminger@buwal.admin.ch For centuries, avalanches, mudslides, falls of stones and rocks, landslides and floods have all been part of the landscape of the Alpine region and of the way in which the landscape has changed. The increases in settlements and development mean that about a million people now live in the Swiss Alpine region, and this population is repeatedly threatened locally by natural hazards. Thanks to the efforts made by the state, the threat of avalanches and flooding has been reduced. However, the risk of damage to property from natural disasters has increased. Therefore, the prevention of any further increase in the risk of such damage represents a considerable challenge for the future. Possible measures include spatial planning, conservation of protection forests, early-warning systems, organizational measures, protective structures, prevention measures to deal with disasters, and measures to restore normal conditions after natural disasters. Economic, ecological, safety and social aspects must all be taken into account. Diunduhdari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/0941-B1.HTM………. 8/1/2013

  50. Managing the Risks of Natural Hazards in Switzerland - An Alpine Country Peter Greminger Director of Protection Forest and Natural Hazards Sector, Swiss Forest Agency, Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL), CH-3003 Berne, Switzerland. Email: peter.greminger@buwal.admin.ch STEPWISE APPROACH TO PROTECTION FROM NATURAL HAZARDS The declared aim of the authorities is to adapt land-use planning to natural hazards with the highest priority, despite the fact that it is not possible to ensure safety for everyone and for everything. This is not only a matter of resources, which are limited, but also a question of space and of what already exists in a densely populated Alpine country such as Switzerland. It is of great importance to know where natural processes may become a hazard for human beings. Only if we know where a danger may arise can we protect ourselves against it. A stepwise approach is to be recommended. Identifying natural hazards The first step is therefore to identify the natural hazards, in order to adapt spatial planning to them. It is necessary to distinguish between the knowledge that is required to give a general overview at the level of regional master plans and the detailed information relating to individual plots that provides the basis for a municipal hazard zone plan. For a master plan, the hazard information map is generally sufficient, whereas to demarcate a hazard zone, an accurate hazard map (based on expert opinion) is necessary. Assessing natural hazards Different natural hazards need to be assessed in terms of their probability of occurrence and severity (intensity), as shown in Fig. 4. For this purpose, it is necessary to study not only individual hazard processes, but also the interactions between processes such as mudslides and avalanches. By combining the potential hazard and community vulnerability, conclusions may be drawn with regard to the possible level of damage. Diunduhdari: http://www.fao.org/docrep/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/0941-B1.HTM………. 8/1/2013

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