Features of S poken Discourse

1. Features of Spoken Discourse Based on the Study Design

2. Openings and Closings Openings Closings They are used to sum up an exchange Reference is made to something outside the speech encounter as a reason for ending the discourse Self and other related comments are common Neutral comments are not They are often repetitive, as speakers are can use delaying tactics • Vocatives can be used to personalise the encounter • Social greetings • Hospitality tokens (e.g. have a drink) • Neutral topics (e.g. the weather) • Self-related comments (focusing on the speaker) • Other related comments (focusing on the listener)

3. Non-fluency Features • They help distinguish between written and spoken texts. • The more formal the text the less likely there will be non-fluency features

4. Types of Non-fluency Features 1.Overlaps • Occurs when speakers compete for a turn in a speech encounter or when a speaker has misjudged the end of a turn. • Most speech encounters are usually cooperative, and overlaps are resolved quickly. If the overlaps involve minimal responses, they are not considered an interruption, but as enhancing the collaborative approach to discourse • Uncooperative overlap occurs if one speaker insists on interrupting another (e.g. heckling)

5. Types Non-fluency Features 2. Pause Fillers (also called voiced hesitations) • They are an accepted feature of spoken discourse, examples are ‘um’, ‘err’ ‘ah’ • Functions; to protect the speaker from interruptions while they think (to hold the floor) • In a formal context, they can be used to gain the attention of an audience who has not settled

6. Types of Non-Fluency Features 3. Pauses • Pauses are acceptable in spoken discourse, especially if the manner is informal. They are not always used just for breathing. • Pauses can be used to show hesitation, perhaps when a speaker is thinking of what to say next. An e.g. of a hesitation is a drawn out word ‘a-asked’. • Pauses can be used intentionally to encourage equality of status between participants • In formal spoken texts pauses can be used for dramatic effect

7. Types of Non-Fluency Features 4. Repairs • These are practical approaches to restore conversation/form of correction. They are typical in spontaneous speech • They are used when a speaker chooses a wrong word, she can correct herself or another speaker can correct her. • OR when a listener mishears a word he can ask for clarification

8. Types of Non-Fluency Features 5. Repetition • In spoken discourse this refers to words being repeated due to hesitancy or a false start. • In writing it refers to a stylistic device which uses reiteration to emphasise an idea.

9. Types of Non-Fluency features 6. False Starts • A hesitation or change of mind once a speaker starts talking, very common in spontaneous discourse

10. Adjacency Pairs • Adjacent turns in spoken discourse which relate to each other, such as questions and answers, greetings and responses, apology and acceptance.

11. Interrogative Tags • Little expressions such as ‘isn’t it?’ and ‘will she?’, which turn statements (declaratives) into questions (interrogatives) • They request the hearer to express agreement or disagreement

12. Discourse Particles • Words and small expressions, such as; ‘well’, ‘yep’, ‘you know’, ‘sort of’ and ‘I mean’; used in a text to communicate information such as changes in topic or scene; ‘well’ and ‘anyway’. • To express changes in turn, to express attitudes and opinions, to answer a question, to show social relationships E.g ‘well’’ and ‘I think’ • Expletives (swearing) can be used as discourse particles