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Explore Richard Nixon's strategy to end the Vietnam War by shifting responsibility to the South Vietnamese forces and implementing a policy of Vietnamization. Discover the challenges and controversies surrounding this approach and its effects on the conflict.
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“I have a simple philosophy: Fill what's empty. Empty what's full. Scratch where it itches.”- Alice Roosevelt Longworth The peach was the first fruit to be eaten on the moon.
The Vietnam War: The End 1968-1975
Nixon Takes the Wheel: 1968 • During the 1968 presidential election, Richard M. Nixon promised "peace with honor“: • His plan was to build up the ARVN, so that they could take over the defense S. Viet. (Nixon Doctrine). • The policy became known as "Vietnamization", a term criticized for implying that, to that date, only Am. had been dying in the conflict. • Vietnamization had much in common with the policies of the Kennedy admin. • One important difference, however, remained. While Kennedy insisted that the S. Viet. fight the war themselves, he attempted to limit the scope of the conflict. In pursuit of a withdrawal strategy, Richard Nixon was prepared to employ a variety of tactics, including widening the war.
Nixon Takes the Wheel: 1968 • Nixon also pursued negotiations and smaller operations, aimed at NLF logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN (S. Viet.). • There was increased openness with the media. • Nixon also began to pursue détente which helped to decrease global tensions - détente led to nuclear arms reduction on the part of both superpowers. • China and the S.U. still continued to supply the N. Viet. with aid. • In Sept. 1969, Ho Chi Minh died at age 79. • The anti-war movement was gaining strength in the U.S. • Nixon appealed to the "Silent Majority" of Am. to support the war, but revelations of the My Lai Massacre, in which U.S. forces went on a rampage and killed civilians, including women and children, provoked national and intl. outrage.
Commander in Chief: Richard Nixon • Vietnamization, Resolution 9, and the Death of Ho Chi Minh (04:30)
Problems in Cambodia • Prince Norodom Sihanouk had proclaimed the neutrality of Cambodia since 1955. • The PAVN/NLF, however, used Cambodian soil as a base; Sihanouk tolerated their presence, because he wished to avoid being drawn into a wider regional conflict. • Under pressure from Washington, however, he changed this policy in 1969. The PAVN/NLF were no longer welcome. Nixon took the opportunity to launch a massive secret bombing campaign, called Operation Menu (2,750,000 tons), against their sanctuaries along the border.
Problems in Cambodia • This violated a long succession of pronounce-ments from Washington supporting Cambodian neutrality. • In 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by pro-American Gen. Lon Nol. The country's borders were closed, and the U.S. and ARVN launched incursions into Cambodia to attack PAVN/NLF bases and buy time for S. Viet. • The coup against Sihanouk and U.S. bombing destabilized Cambodia. • The invasion of Cambodia sparked nationwide U.S. protests.
Commander in Chief: Richard Nixon • Nixon's Secret War (02:44)
Operation Lam Son 719, 1971 • The ARVN (S. Viet). launched Operation Lam Son 719, it aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos; the offensive was a clear violation of Laotian neutrality (which neither side respected in any event). • Laos had long been the scene of a Secret War. • After meeting resistance, ARVN forces retreated in a confused rout. • When they ran out of fuel, soldiers abandoned their vehicles and attempted to barge their way on to Am. helicopters sent to evacuate the wounded. • Many ARVN soldiers clung to helicopter skids in a desperate attempt to save themselves. • U.S. aircraft had to destroy abandoned equipment, including tanks, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Half of the invading ARVN troops were either captured or killed. • The operation was a fiasco and represented a clear failure of Vietnamization.
Easter Offensive, 1972 • Vietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972 - a massive conventional invasion of S. Viet. • The PAVN/NLF (N. Viet.) quickly overran the N provinces of Viet. and in co-ordination with other forces, attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. • In spite of this offensive, U.S. troop withdrawals continued. • American airpower did come to the rescue, however, with Operation Linebacker (bombing), and the offensive was halted. • After this offensive, it became clear that without Am. airpower S. Viet. could not survive. • The last remaining Am. ground troops were withdrawn in Aug. but a force of civilian and military advisers remained in place.
Peace? • In 1972, Nixon's National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger, cont. secret negotiations with N. Viet.'s Le Duc Tho. • In October 1972, they reached an agreement; however, S. Viet. President Thieu demanded massive changes to the peace accord. • When N. Viet. went public with the agreement's details, the Nixon admin. claimed that the N. was attempting to embarrass the President; the negotiations became deadlocked and Hanoi demanded new changes. • To show his support for S. Viet. and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong - the offensive destroyed much of the remaining econ. and industrial capacity of N. Viet. • Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid. • Popularly known as the Christmas Bombings, Operation Linebacker II provoked a fresh wave of anti-war demonstrations
Peace? • On Jan. 15, 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against N. Viet. • The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam" were signed on Jan. 27, 1973, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Viet. War: • A cease-fire was declared across S. Viet., but N. Viet. forces were allowed to remain on S. Viet. territory., U.S. POWs were released, territorial integrity of Viet. was guaranteed and, and national elections were called for. • The ARVN was supplied with 100s of millions of dollars of new equipment. It became the 4th largest fighting force in the world. • Nixon promised Thieu that he would use airpower to support his gov., however, the growing Watergate scandal and an Am. public tired of the war, however, made it impossible to keep his promise. • The balance of power shifted decisively in N. Viet.'s favor.
S. Viet. Gov. Stands Alone: 1974–1975 • In Dec. 1974, it passed the Foreign Assistance Act of 1974, which provided "that after June 30, 1976, no military assistance shall be furnished to S. Viet. unless authorized under the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 or the Foreign Military Sales Act“ - President Gerald Ford signed the act into law. • By 1975 the S. Viet. Army was much larger than its opponent; however, they faced a well-organized, highly determined and well-funded N. Viet. (Soviet aid). • The withdrawal of the Am. military had compromised an econ. dependent on U.S. financial support and the presence of large numbers of U.S. troops. • Between the signing of the 1973 Paris Peace Accord and late 1974, both N and S Viet. had been satisfied with minor land-grabs; the N. Viet., however, were growing impatient with the Thieu regime, which remained opposed to national elections.
S. Viet. Gov. Stands Alone: 1974–1975 • Hanoi was also concerned that the U.S. would once again support its former ally if large scale operations were resumed. • By late 1974, N. Viet. launched an offensive from Cambodia into Phuoc Long Province. The strike was designed to solve local logistical problems, gauge the reaction of Saigon forces and determine if the U.S. would return to the fray. • In late Dec. and early Jan., the offensive kicked off, and Phuoc Long Province quickly fell to the VPA. There was considerable relief when Am. air power did not return. The speed of this success led the N. Viet. to reassess its strategy.
Campaign 275 • On March 10, 1975, N. Viet. Gen. Dung launched Campaign 275, - the target was Ban Me Thuot, in Daklak Province; if the town could be taken, the provincial capital of Pleiku and the road to the coast would be exposed for a planned campaign in 1976. • The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught, and its forces collapsed on March 11. • President Nguyen Van Thieu, a former general, made a strategic blunder - fearful that his forces would be cut off in the N by the attacking communists, Thieu ordered a retreat; the withdrawal soon turned into a bloody rout.
Campaign 275 • As the N. Viet. forces approached, panic set in; often abandoned by their officers, the soldiers and civilians were shelled incessantly. The retreat degenerated into a desperate scramble for the coast; by April 1 the "column of tears" was all but annihilated. • March 20: Thieu reversed himself and ordered Hue, Vietnam's 3rd-largest city, be held at all costs. • March 31: After a 3-day battle, Hue fell to the communists. • By March 30, 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the VPA marched victoriously through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and N. provinces came to an end.
Final N. Viet. Offensive • With the N half of the country under their control, N. Viet. Gen. Van launched the final offensive against Saigon. • The operational plan for the Ho Chi Minh Campaign called for the capture of Saigon before May 1. • April 7: 3 N. Viet. divisions attacked Xuan-loc, 40 miles E of Saigon. • The next day a rogue S. Viet. pilot bombed the presidential palace in Saigon. • The N. Viet. met fierce resistance at Xuan-loc from the ARVN 18th Division. • For 2 bloody weeks, severe fighting raged as the ARVN defenders, in a last-ditch effort, tried to block their advance.
Final N. Viet. Offensive • By April 21, however, the exhausted garrison surrendered. An embittered and tearful President Thieu resigned on the same day, declaring that the U.S. had betrayed S. Viet. • By the end of April, the Army of the Republic of S. Viet. had collapsed on all fronts. • Thousands of refugees streamed S. ward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. • April 27: 100,000 N. Viet. troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the VPA shelled the airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out.
Fall of Saigon • Chaos, unrest, and panic ensued as hysterical S. Viet. officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. • Am. helicopters began evacuating S. Viet., U.S. and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. embassy compound. • Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin's belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached. • "Frequent Wind" was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history; It began on April 29, 1975 in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Viet. vied for limited seats. • Martin pleaded with Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves, but Am. public opinion had long soured on this conflict halfway around the world.
Fall of Saigon • In the U.S., S. Viet. was perceived as doomed - President Gerald Ford gave a televised speech on April 23, declaring an end to the Viet. War and all U.S. aid. • "Frequent Wind" cont. around the clock, as N. Viet. tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon. • The song "White Christmas" was broadcast, as the final signal for withdrawal. In the early morning hours of April 30, the last U.S. Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Am. and were left to their fate. • April 30, 1975: N. Viet. troops overcame all resistance, quickly capturing key buildings and installations. A tank crashed through the gates of the Presidential Palace and at 11:30 a.m. local time the NLF flag was raised above it. Thieu's successor, President Duong Van Minh, attempted to surrender, but VPA Colonel Bui Quang Than informed him that he had nothing left to surrender. Minh then issued his last command, ordering all S. Viet. troops to lay down their arms.
Aftermath of the War • April 14, 1975: Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, fell to the Khmer Rouge (Cambodian Communist Party). • May 15, 1975: The last official Am. military action in SE Asia occurred - 41 U.S. military personnel were killed when the Khmer Rouge seized a U.S. merchant ship, the SS Mayagüez. • Dec. 1975: The Pathet Lao (Loa Communist Party) overthrew the royalist gov. of Laos and est. the Lao People's Democratic Republic. • Hundreds of thousands of S. Viet. officials, particularly ARVN officers, were imprisoned in reeducation camps after the Communist takeover - Tens of thousands died and many fled the country after being released. • Up to 2 million civilians left the country, and as many as half of these boat people perished at sea.
Aftermath of the War • July 2, 1976: The Socialist Republic of Vietnam was declared. • After repeated border clashes in 1978, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) and ousted the Khmer Rouge. As many as 2 million died during the Khmer Rouge genocide. • Vietnam began to repress its ethnic Chinese minority - thousands fled and the exodus of the boat people began. • 1979, China invaded Vietnam in retaliation for its invasion of Cambodia, known as the Third Indochina War or the Sino-Vietnamese War; Chinese forces were repulsed. • The dire predictions of a generation did not come to fruition. Since Thailand and other SE Asian nations did not fall to systematic Vietnamese aggression, the Domino Theory, so widely trumpeted, was said to have been an illusion. Vietnam, without the presence of the US, showed itself to be of little econ. or strategic value to anyone.
Aftermath of the War • S. Viet. dead: 250,000; wounded: 1,170,000 • US dead: 58,209; 2,000 missing; wounded: 305,000 • N. Viet. & NLF dead/missing: 1,100,000;wounded: 600,000 • Vietnamese civilian dead: 2,000,000–5,100,000 • Cambodian civilian dead: 700,000 • Laotian civilian dead: 50,000 • Viet. has remained a united country since the war under a communist gov., and after the econ. decline in the post-war years, it has become a booming econ.
