Chapter 7: Human Memory

1. Chapter 7: Human Memory

2. Human Memory: Basic Questions • How does information get into memory? • How is information maintained in memory? • How is information pulled back out of memory?

3. Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory

4. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory • The role of attention • Focusing awareness • Selective attention = selection of input • Filtering: early or late? • Multitasking

5. Figure 7.3 Models of selective attention

6. Levels of Processing:Craik and Lockhart (1972) • Incoming information processed at different levels • Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes • Encoding levels: • Structural = shallow • Phonemic = intermediate • Semantic = deep

7. Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing theory

8. Figure 7.5 Retention at three levels of processing

9. Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory • Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding • Thinking of examples • Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered • Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory • Self-Referent Encoding • Making information personally meaningful

10. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory • Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory • Information-processing theories • Subdivide memory into 3 different stores • Sensory, Short-term, Long-term

11. Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage

12. Sensory Memory • Brief preservation of information in original sensory form • Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second • George Sperling (1960) • Classic experiment on visual sensory store

13. Figure 7.8 Sperling’s (1960) study of sensory memory

14. Short Term Memory (STM) • Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 • Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit • Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal • Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

15. Figure 7.9 Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study of short-term memory

16. Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” • STM not limited to phonemic encoding • Loss of information not only due to decay • Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working memory • Phonological rehearsal loop • Visuospatial sketchpad • Executive control system

17. Working Memory Capacity • Influences ability to control focus of attention • Capacity correlates positively with measures of high-level cognitive abilities • Critical to complex cognitive processes and intelligence • Declines gradually during late adulthood

18. Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity • Permanent storage? • Flashbulb memories • Recall through hypnosis • Debate: are STM and LTM really different? • Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding • Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

19. How is Knowledge Representedand Organized in Memory? • Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies • Schemas and Scripts • Semantic Networks • Connectionist Networks and PDP Models

20. Figure 7.13 Conceptual hierarchies and long-term memory.

21. Figure 7.14 A semantic network..

22. Retrieval: Getting InformationOut of Memory • The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval • Retrieval cues • Recalling an event • Context cues • Reconstructing memories • Misinformation effect • Source monitoring, reality monitoring

23. Forgetting: When Memory Lapses • Retention – the proportion of material retained • Recall • Recognition • Relearning • Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

24. Figure 7.17 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables

25. Figure 7.18. Recognition versus recall in the measurement of retention.

26. Why Do We Forget? • Ineffective Encoding • Decay theory • Interference theory • Proactive • Retroactive • Forgetting as adaptation

27. Figure 7.19 Retroactive and proactive interference

28. Retrieval Failure • Encoding Specificity • Transfer-Appropriate Processing • Repression • Authenticity of repressed memories • Memory illusions • Controversy

29. Figure 7.21 Estimates of the prevalence of childhood physical and sexual abuse

30. Figure 7.22 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)

31. The Physiology of Memory • Biochemistry • Alteration in synaptic transmission • Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems • Protein synthesis • Neural circuitry • Localized neural circuits • Reusable pathways in the brain • Long-term potentiation • Neurogenesis

32. The Physiology of Memory • Anatomy • Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia • Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus, • Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

33. Figure 7.23 The anatomy of memory

34. Figure 7.24 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia

35. Are There Multiple Memory Systems? • Declarative vs. Procedural • Semantic vs. Episodic • Prospective vs. Retrospective

36. Figure 7.25 Theories of independent memory systems

37. Improving Everyday Memory • Engage in adequate rehearsal • Distribute practice and minimize interference • Emphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate processing • Organize information • Use verbal mnemonics • Use visual mnemonics