Looking to the West (1860-1900)

1. Looking to the West (1860-1900) The Indian Wars

2. The Life of the Plains Indians • Eastern settlers changed the lives of N. A. on the Great Plains • Indians & French traded buffalo hides for guns, making hunting easier • Horses made N. A. warfare much more intense and violent • Many N. A. became nomads b/c of the horse. Became more mobile to follow food sources • Warrior societies led to much more violence and instability

4. Indian Wars and Government Policy • N.A. lived on traditional lands W. of Mississippi • N. A. viewed settlers as invaders, Settlers took land from N. A. • (Settlers vs. N.A. = invaders vs. owners) • Gov’t treaties forced N. A. onto reservations • Settlers ignored treaties • Acts of violence led to cycles of revenge. Both sides guilty.

5. Brutality, Unfulfilled Promises, and Butchery • Treaties: • Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867 • Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) • Most Indians angered by the treaties • By 1868, war parties were raiding cities in Kansas and Colorado • In response, army troops killed any Indians who refused to stay on reservations

6. Wars/Battles Native American Nations/Homelands Key Players Description/Outcome Apache and Navajo Wars (1861-1886) Apache in Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado territories; Navajo in New Mexico, Colorado territories • Geronimo • Col. Christopher “Kit” Carson Carson kills or relocates many Apache to reservations in 1862. Clashes drag on until Geronmino’s surrender in 1886. Navajo told to surrender in 1863, but before they can, Carson attacks, killing hundreds, destroying homelands. Navajos moved to New Mexico reservation in 1865. Sand Creek Massacre (1864) Southern Cheyeene, Arapaho, in central plains • Black Kettle • Col. John Chivington Cheyenne massacres prompt Chivington to kill up to 500 surrendered Cheyenne and Arapaho led by Black Kettle. Red River War (1874-1875) Comanche and southern branches of Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Arapaho, in southern plains • Comanche war parties • Gen. William T. Sherman • Lt. Gen. Philip H. Sheridan Southern plains Indians relocated to Oklahoma Indian Territory under 1867 Treaty of Medicin Lodge. After buffalo hunters destroy the Indians food supply, Comanche warriors race to buffalo grazing areas in Texas panhandle to kill hunters. Sherman and Sheridan defeat warriors and open panhandle to cattle ranching. Key Events in the Indian Wars, 1861-1890

7. Wars/Battles Native American Nations/Homelands Key Players Description/Outcome Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) Northern plains Sioux in Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana territorries • Sitting Bull • Crazy Horse • Red Cloud • Lt. Col. George • A. Custer U.S. tries to buy gold-rich Black Hills from Sioux. Talks fail. Custer’s 7th Cavalry is sent to round up Sioux, but meets huge enemy force. Custer and some 200 men perish in “Custer’s Last Stand.” Nez Perce War (1877) Largest branch of Nez Perce, in Wallowa Valley of Idaho and Washington territories and Oregon • Chief Joseph • Gen. Oliver O. Howard • Col. Nelson Miles Howard orders Nez Perce to Idaho reservation; violence erupts. Joseph leads some 700 men, women, and children on 1,400-mile flight. His 200 warriors hold off Miles’s 2,000 soldiers until halted 40 miles short of Canada. Sent to Indian Territory, many die of disease. In 1885, survivors moved to reservation in Washington Territory. Battle of Wounded Knee (1890) Sioux at Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota • Sitting Bull • U.S. 7th • Cavalry Ghost Dance raises fears of Sioux uprising; Sitting Bull killed in attempted arrest. His followers surrender and camp at Wounded Knee. Shots are fired; some 200 Sioux die. Key Events in the Indian Wars, 1861-1890

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9. Warring Sioux • Several Sioux tribes fought to stay on their land and protect their hunting grounds • Raided settlements and harassed miners • Sitting Bull • Leader of non-treaty Sioux • Strong fighting expertise

10. Rising Tensions in the West • Sand Creek Massacre • Cheyenne and Arapaho Camps attacked by Local Militia…natives retaliate • Governor urges settlers to kill hostile natives • Brings in Colonel John M. Chivington • “remember the murdered women and children” • Nov. 29: Chivington massacred natives at Sand Creek (including women and children)

11. Sand Creek (1864) •US army massacred Cheyenne, Arapahoe Older men, women, And children. •Eastern Colorado

12. William Tecumseh Sherman • “War is hell…” • March through Georgia in Civil War • Commanding General of U.S. Army after 1869 • Colonel who sent Custer on his expedition into the Black Hills

13. General George Armstrong Custer • General in the Civil War • Infamous Indian fighter during the Sioux Wars • Wanted to find gold in Black Hills • Defeated in the Battle at Little Bighorn (1876)

14. Sitting Bull Lakota Sioux Chief

15. Little Bighorn • Army moved to assault roaming Sioux in 1876 • 600 troops marched on Little Bighorn River • Custer separated his men and sent half of his forces straight into battle • This group and the rest were wiped out by Cheyenne and Sioux • Defeat angered the army who became even more ruthless

16. Battle of the Little Bighorn (Custer’s Last Stand)

17. The Little Bighorn today

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19. Wounded Knee Creek • The Ghost Dance • In honor of Wovoka • December 29, 1890 • Seventh cavalry was sent to round up a group of Indians at Wounded Knee when an ‘excited’ Indian fired a shot • The soldiers then open fired • More than 300 Indians killed in minutes

20. Wounded Knee, SD (1890)

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23. “Saving” the Indians • More and more Americans disagreed with Government Indian policies • The Women’s National Indian Rights Association • Century of Dishonor by Helen Hunt Jackson • They thought breaking up the reservations and assimilating the Indians into society was the best thing • Dawes Severalty Act • Gave individuals acreages of land and made them citizens of the U.S.

24. Attempts to Change Native American Culture • Many people believed that Native Americans needed to give up their traditions and culture, learn English, become Christians, adopt white dress and customs, and support themselves by farming and trades. • This policy is called assimilation, the process by which one society becomes a part of another, more dominant society by adopting its culture. • In 1887 the Dawes Act divided reservation land into individual plots. Each family headed by a man received 160 acres. • Many Native Americans did not believe in the concept of individual property, nor did they want to farm the land. For some, the practices of farming went against their notion of ecology. Some had no experience in agriculture. • Between 1887 and 1932, some two thirds of this land became white owned.

25. Assimilation and the Indian Schools • Carlisle, PA, other sites around the U.S. • Genoa, Nebraska • Attempted to ‘save the Indian’ by making them assimilate into American culture, manners and customs • Formed by people who empathized with the plight of the Indians and wanted a “humanitarian” solution • “Kill the Indian and save the man” —Richard Pratt, founder of Carlisle

26. Genoa, NE Indian School

27. Before and After

28. Dawes Act • Indian Homestead Act - 1887 • Another attempt to assimilate Indians

29. The Opening of Indian Territory • Fifty five Indian nations were forced into Indian Territory, the largest unsettled farmland in the United States. • During the 1880s, squatters overran the land, and Congress agreed to buy out the Indian claims to the region. • On April 22, 1889, tens of thousands of homesteaders lined up at the territory’s borders to stake claims on the land. • By sundown, settlers called boomers had staked claims on almost 2 million acres. • Many boomers discovered that some of the best lands had been grabbed by sooners, people who had sneaked past the government officials earlier to mark their claims. • Under continued pressure from settlers, Congress created Oklahoma Territory in 1890. In the following years, the remainder of Indian Territory was open to settlement.

30. Oklahoma Land Rush (1889) • Oklahoma was “Indian Territory” given to the five civilized tribes • They sided with the Confederacy, the government took land as punishment • 2 million acres free for settlement • Free land was considered instant prosperity, but droughts would make many farms fail

32. By 1900 • Most Indians had been driven onto reservations • Reduced from 1/4 million to 1 hundred thousand • The culture still survives

33. Land Lost:

34. Reservations Today:

35. Hides popular as blankets Buffalo threatened by the Railroad Hunted for Sport End of the Buffalo Native Americans surrender End of Sioux Wars Gold found on Lakota reservation 300 Native Americans killed Wounded Knee Nat. Amer. Win Battle of Little Bighorn Sioux Wars Started by death of Sitting Bull Battle of Little Bighorn—Sitting Bull vs. General Custer Broken Promises Established reservation Attempts at Peace Clashes Govt. went back on treaties Native Americans attempted to protect culture and land Attempt to teach Nat. Amer. White farming Reforms Dawes Act: attempt to “Americanize” Nat. Amer

36. Looking to the West (1860-1900) Moving West

37. The West • Push Factors • Crowding back East • Displaced farmers • Former slaves • Eastern farmland expensive • Ethnic and religious repression in Europe • Haven for outlaws • Pull Factors • Government incentives • Pacific Railway Act • Morrill Land-Grant Act • Homestead Act • Private Property • Miners • Ranchers • Farmers

38. “Push” Factors The Civil War had displaced thousands of farmers, former slaves, and other workers. Eastern farmland was too costly. Failed entrepreneurs sought a second chance in a new locations. Ethnic and religious repression caused people to seek the freedom of the west. Outlaws sought refuge. “Pull” Factors The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1862 Land speculators Homestead Act, 1862 Legally enforceable property rights The Lure of the West When geographers study reasons for major migrations, they look at what they call push-pull factors-events and conditions that either force (push) people to move elsewhere or strongly attract (pull) them to do so. Here are some push-pull factors for moving west.

39. GO WEST, YOUNG MAN! • The Myth of the Frontier • “Manifest Destiny” • Civil War over • Adventure • Resources • Wealth (Gold, Cattle, Land)

40. Settlers From Far and Wide • German-speaking immigrants arrived seeking farmland. They brought the Lutheran religion with its emphasis on hard work and education. • Lutherans from Scandinavia settled the northern plains from Iowa to Minnesota to the Dakotas, many pursuing dairy farming. • Irish, Italians, European Jews, and Chinese settled in concentrated communities on the West coast. They took jobs in mining and railroad construction that brought them to the American interior. • After the Civil War, thousands of African Americans rode or walked westward, often fleeing violence and exploitation. • Benjamin “Pap” Singleton led groups of southern blacks on a mass “Exodus,” a trek inspired by the biblical account of the Israelites’ flight from Egypt to a prophesied homeland. Hence, the settlers called themselves Exodusters. Some 50,000 or more Exodusters migrated west.

41. Pacific Railway Acts • 1862, 1864 • Large land grants to Union Pacific RR and Central Pacific RR • 175 million acres

42. Morrill Land Grant Act • 1862 • State governments received millions of acres of land to: • Sell • Create land grant colleges for agricultural and mechanical arts Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1872

43. Homestead Act • 1862 • Small fee, settlers received 160 acres if: • 21 yrs old • Citizens or immigrants filing for citizenship • Minimum sized house • Lived on claim 6 months out of the year • Farm the land for 5 years in a row • 372,000 farms • 80 million acres

44. Exodusters • Free blacks looking for new start after the Civil War • Most headed to Kansas (“pulled” by the Homestead Act and free land. • Exodusters based on the biblical “Exodus” of the Hebrews from Egypt - leaving bondage for freedom in the “Promised Land”

45. Exodusters - Nebraska Connection:

46. Homesteader Homes • Built with available materials (sod) • Small • Functional as a shelter