Crusader Jerusalem 1099-1187 by Russel Mack 2006

1. Crusader Jerusalem1099-1187 by Russel Mack 2006 12th century map

2. The Quarters of Crusader Jerusalem • Crusader Jerusalem was divided into 4 quarters: the Patriarch’s Quarter was in the NW region (present day “Christian Quarter”). It contained the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Patriarch’s palace, the “Hospital”, hostels, churches, monasteries, grain market, baths, bakeries, piggeries, markets, and workshops. The Patriarch’s Pool, a source of city water, was at the southern end of the quarter. • The Armenian Quarter (which remains to the present) was to the south. It was centered around the Cathedral of the Church of St. James where the apostles head is entombed. Greeks and Jewish dyers also lived in this quarter. • The NE quarter had been occupied by Jews during the Muslim period. King Baldwin settled the deserted area with Syrian Christians and it came to be known as the Syrian Quarter. • The SE quarter of the city (present day Jewish Quarter) was occupied by Moslems. After the conquest it was inhabited by Frankish settlers. It contained several churches and the city’s cattle market. (Benvenisti, 54)

3. The Hospitallers’ Quarter • The Order of the Hospitallers operated several buildings including a hospital located south of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in an area bordered on the east by the market, on the south by David St, on the west by Christian St. (St. of the Patriarch), and on the north by the street leading to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre beneath the current market. Several churches (St. Mary Latina; St. Mary Magdalene, later known as St. Mary Majora; and St. John the Baptist) operated hospices to minister to the needs of pilgrims from the late 11th century on. The Order became an independent international order under the patronage of the pope in 1113. Originally, the Order engaged exclusively in the lodging and medical care of pilgrims. Over time, it became involved in the military sphere. By the 1160’s it was one of the principle military supporters of the Crusader kingdom. The Hospitaller buildings served as a monastery for members of the order and hostel-infirmary for pilgrims. The members of the order lodged in a building east of the church on David St. Benjamin Tudela reported that 400 knights were housed there in the 1170’s. The buildings were eventually destroyed after the Moslem capture of 1244. Benenvisti (58-62)

4. The Hospitallers’ Quarter • The Order of the Hospitallers operated several buildings including a hospital located south of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in an area bordered on the east by the market, on the south by David St, on the west by Christian St. (St. of the Patriarch), and on the north by the street leading to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre beneath the current market. Several churches (St. Mary Latina; St. Mary Magdalene, later known as St. Mary Majora; and St. John the Baptist) operated hospices to minister to the needs of pilgrims from the late 11th century on. The Order became an independent international order under the patronage of the pope in 1113. Originally, the Order engaged exclusively in the lodging and medical care of pilgrims. Over time, it became involved in the military sphere. By the 1160’s it was one of the principle military supporters of the Crusader kingdom. The Hospitaller buildings served as a monastery for members of the order and hostel-infirmary for pilgrims. The members of the order lodged in a building east of the church on David St. Benjamin Tudela reported that 400 knights were housed there in the 1170’s. The buildings were eventually destroyed after the Moslem capture of 1244. Benenvisti (58-62)

5. The Hospitallers’ Quarter • Theodorich described the Hospital in the 12th century: • “And here, on the south side of the church stands the Church and Hospital of St. John the Baptist. As for this, no one can credibly tell another how beautiful its buildings are, how abundantly it is supplied with rooms and beds and other material for the use of poor and sick people,-Indeed, we passed through this palace, and were unable by any means to discover the number of sick people lying there; but we saw that the beds numbered more than one thousand.” (Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani, Comp. R. Rohricht. Innsbruck, 1893. Quoted in Benenvisti, 59.) • John of Würzburg described it: • “Towards the south, is a beautiful church built in honour of John the Baptist, annexed to which is a hospital where in various rooms is collected together an enormous multitude of sick people, both men and women, who are tended and restored to health daily at a very great expense. When I was there I learnt that the whole number of these sick people amounted to two thousand, of whom sometimes in the course of one day and night more than fifty are being carried out dead, while many other fresh ones keep continually arriving. What more can I say? This same house supplies as many people outside it with victuals as it does those inside, in addition to the boundless charity which is daily bestowed upon poor people who beg their bread from door to door and do no lodge in the house, so that the whole sum total of its expenses can surely never be calculated even by the managers and stewards thereof.” (John of Wurzburg, Palestine Pilgrim’s Text Society, in 12 vols. (vols. IV, V, VI, XII) London, 1892-6 quoted in Benenvisti, 59.) Detail of the area

6. The Armenian Quarter • The Armenian Quarter (which remains to the present) was to the south of the Patriarch’s Quarter. It was centered around the Cathedral of the Church of St. James where the apostles head is entombed. Greeks and Jewish dyers also lived in this quarter.

7. The Templars • The order was established in 1118 by Hugh de Payns a Burgundian knight to protect pilgrims from robbers. From its humble beginning as a group of 8 knights it grew to an order of great wealth and power. King Baldwin II extended his patronage to the order and gave it a wing of the royal palace (al Aqsa Mosque). The Franks knew the mosque as the Temple of Solomon and thus the order derived its name. The area accessible through the Huldah Gates on the SE corner of the Temple Mount were used as stables by the knights of the order. Additional buildings were erected west of al Aqsa that served as a residence hall and storage for grain. (Benenvisti 65-6)

8. The Templars (cont.) The Present Day Location of the Crusader Stables The knights’ horses were kept in stables beneath the palace.

9. Markets • Several markets in the city, each featured a particular trade or commodity. Three principle markets: the cattle market (near the Tannery or Dung Gate) and the grain market (near the Tower of David) were in open squares. The poultry market in David St. was in a vaulted building and is today a vegetable market. The principal bazaar and market-place were at the center of the city. The bazaar was comprised of 3 vaulted streets running north to south with groin-vaults (picture?) resting on pointed arches. The vaulting was 6 meters high with the width of the passage 3 meters from wall to wall. Square apertures in the uppermost part of the vaults admitted light. Connecting passageways between the streets facilitated commerce. Wares were displayed on stone verandahs 60 cm high and projecting 1 meter from the front wall of the shop. The western market was known as the St. of Herbs; the central market was known as the St of Bad Cookery and furnished food to pilgrims, and the eastern market as the Covered St. The shop keepers were Franks and Syrians who lived and worked side-by side, while Latin traders concentrated in the Covered St.

10. The Market & the Church • Several arches of the St. of Bad Cookery are inscribed: SCA ANNA (Sancta Anna) indicating the shops were owned by the monastery of St. Anne. Other shops inscribed with a T appear to have belonged to the Order of the Templars. The Syrian Exchange was on the north side of the market and the Latin Exchange on the south. 27 bakeries were scattered throughout the city with 24 of them under the control of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. (Clermont-Ganneau, 116-123 & Benvenisti, 55-6)

11. Material Culture Brass canteen inlaid with silver depicting the Holy History Bowl sent to Charlemagne by Harun Al-Rashid Painted glass

12. Material Culture • The ceramics used by the Crusader inhabitants had three primary sources: local, non-Frankish manufacture, neighboring Islamic states, or European countries under Christian rule. The use of glaze for decorative and functional purposes was wide spread. Designs were painted on the surface of the vessel before the glaze was added. Alkaline glaze was used on vessels made of a friable, faience-like material known as frit. Lead glaze was applied to brown or reddish vessels which were first covered with a white slip as a primer so the color of the glaze would not be affected by the color of the clay. Decorations were usually incised prior to the application of glaze. Alternatively, a pattern was painted in slip on the dark surface before the glaze was applied (slip-painting) resulting in the non-painted areas appearing as a dark brown. Tin-opacified glazed vessels were decorated with a colored overglaze painting or a metallic overglaze technique known as luster. (Boas, 143-146) Medieval Slip-ware

13. City Defenses • Several components constituted the Jerusalem city defenses during the Crusader period: the city wall, city gates, defense towers, a moat, a fortified temple mount, and the citadel. • The city wall was quite foreboding, and its path followed that of earlier periods. Modern Jerusalem’s Old City wall still follows the same path. • In addition to minor gates, each of the four city walls had one primary gate: • North wall: St. Stephen’s Gate – modern Damascus Gate • South wall: Zion Gate – located ca. 100 meters east of the modern Zion’s Gate (Boas 1999, 19) • East wall: Jehoshaphat’s Gate – modern Lion’s Gate • West wall: David’s Gate – modern Jaffa Gate (Bahat, 92-3) • Towers were a hallmark of Crusader Jerusalem; it had approximately 75, some of which were for defensive purposes and others were for domestic use (Pringle 1995, 172). Perhaps the most famous of the towers – outside the Citadel – was Tancred’s/Goliath’s Tower in the city’s northwest corner. • Jerusalem’s moat existed prior to the arrival of the Crusaders and it was expanded during the 1160’s (Bahat, 92). • The Temple Mount was also fortified during the Crusader period (Bahat, 93).

14. City Defenses: The Citadel • On the western wall of the city, the Citadel stood. Crusaders reinforced the Citadel proper and David’s Tower (Bahat, 92). It became a symbol of Crusader Jerusalem and eventually served as the seat of Crusader kings (Bahat, 96).

15. City Defenses: The Citadel (cont.) • The Crusaders renovated part of the Citadel to house a church. Plan of the Citadel

16. Ecclesiastical Structures • Upon arriving in the East, Franks converted mosques to churches, expanded/rebuilt existing churches, or built new churches (Boas 1999, 12). • On the Temple Mount, the Dome of the Rock became Templum Domini (Temple of the Lord). Besides surrounding the rock with a metal grate and replacing the crescent atop the dome with a cross, the Crusaders made very few changes to the building. The Dome of the Ascension – which marked the place of Muhammad’s ascension into heaven – became a baptistery (Bahat, 90). The al-Aqsa Mosque became the center of the Templars, who called it Templum Solomonis (Solomon’s Temple) (Bahat, 97). • Several churches had abbeys and monasteries attached (Boas 1999, 142). Dome of the Ascension Dome of the Rock

17. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher • This was the most important structure in Crusader Jerusalem. By uniting under one roof all the sites connected with the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection of Jesus, the Crusaders restored and built the church into its basic modern shape. The church was dedicated on July 15, 1149 – the 50th anniversary of the Crusader conquest of the city (Bahat, 94). • Much of what stands today is what remains from the work of the Crusaders. 4th Century 12th Century South Entrance Crusader Façade

18. Ecclesiastical Structures • A 5-part typology exists for Crusader churches (Boas 1999, 124): • Basilicas with broad transepts and chevets with radial chapels: Large churches with a long nave and aisles, a broad transept and an ambulatory with chapels radiating around the apse; an example is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Boas 1999, 124-5). • Simple basilica churches: Rectangular churches usually divided into thirds by two rows of piers (Boas 1999, 128). • Basilicas with transepts: Churches with transepts that usually do not extend beyond the side walls of the church; some also include domes at the junction of the nave and transept; an example is the Church of St. Anne (Boas 1999, 132). Also under this rubric are churches with a cruciform plan; an example is the Tomb of the Virgin Mary in the Valley of Jehoshaphat (Boas 1999, 137). • Single-nave churches: Churches with a single nave ending in an apse with no aisles (Boas 1999, 138). • Polygonal churches: Churches with a circular polygonal shape; an example is the Dome of Ascension on the Mt. of Olives marking the spot of Jesus’ ascension (Boas 1999, 138). Church of St. Anne Dome of the Ascension

19. Crusader Architecture and Building Materials • A unique style did emerge during the Crusader period in the Levantine mainland and Cyprus (Pringle 1995, 160). • Written sources report two types of Crusader home architecture: • 1) The oriental type – closed to the outside street with the main rooms opening onto a central courtyard • 2) The type with shops opening onto the street with several floors of domestic apartments above (Pringle 1995, 170) • When the Crusaders took Jerusalem, it is likely that they did not destroy many homes (Boas 1999, 30). • Crusader building materials were mortar and plaster, a limited quantity of wood, metalwork, and stone (Pringle 1995, 161; Boas 1999, 217-9). • Diagonal striations are a hallmark of Crusader masonry (Boas 1999, 219-20). • The primary building material for floors, roofs, balconies and stairs was stone. Wood and metalwork usually have not survived to illustrate their use (Pringle 1995, 161). Diagonal Striations

20. Water Systems “[In Jerusalem] there is also visible up to this day the pool used by the priests before offering their sacrifices, and the Jews coming there to write their names upon the wall…in the neighborhood is also a great spring, called the Waters of Siloam, connected with the brook of Kidron. Over the spring is a large structure dating from the time of our ancestors, but little water is found, and the people of Jerusalem for the most part drink the rain-water, which they collect in cisterns in their houses.” -Benjamin of Tudela (12th century, C.E.) • Spring The spring of Gihon which flows through Hezekiah’s tunnel to the pool of Siloam was the only source of running water. • Rain/cisterns Theodorich reports: “the people catch the rain water which falls upon [the roofs] and store it up in cisterns for their own use. They use no other water because they have none.” (Regesta Regni Hieroslymitani, Comp. R. Rohricht. Innsbruck, 1893. Additamentum, 1904., p. 278.) • Pools within Within the area of the Temple Mount were huge cisterns. Three large pools were within the walls: hammam al-Batraq (also called Lacus Balneorum, “Pool of Baths”) in the Patriarch’s Quarter; The Old Pool near the Jehosahat Gate; the twin pools called Piscina Interior, “Inner Pool” or Probatica Piscina, “Pool of the Sheep”. The water in the city was enough to supply a number of bath houses. • Pools without There were two pools outside the city: the Pool of Legerius, one near St. Stephen’s/Damascus Gate; and Birket a-Sultan, in the Hinnom Valley. This one was built by a citizen named Germain.

21. The expanding population of Jerusalem necessitated an increase in the water supply. In the 1170’s a philanthropist named Germain constructed a new pool in the upper part of the Hinnom Valley west of the city. The pool was called Lac Germains or Lacus Germani, called today the Sultan’s Pool. • Germain’s reservoir was an extension of an existing pool. It was formed by the construction of two walls across the Hinnom Valley. The southern wall was thicker and much higher, forming a dam. The upper wall was a smaller pool which may have served as a filter (Boas, 173-4). Lower Pool of Gihon Drawn by W. D. Bartlett, published in The Christian in Palestine, 1847. This site is now known as the Sultan's Pool.

22. Burial The Church of the Holy Sepulcher, originally built by the mother of Emperor Constantine in 330 C.E., commemorates the hill of crucifixion and the tomb of Christ's burial.   • Royalty were buried among the Saints, specifically in the two most holy Christian burial sites: the Holy Sepulchre and the Tomb of the Virgin Mary. The tombs of the first eight rulers of the kingdom of Jerusalem were located in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, next to the Chapel of Adam below Golgotha. Of these, only the sarcophagus of Baldwin V (d. 1186) has survived, and that in fragmentary form. • Lesser nobles and burgesses were buried outside the walls, while the poor, pilgrims, and those who died in hospitals were buried in charnel houses (Boas, 180-88). • The segregation of the dead was an expression of medieval class structure

23. Akeldama Charnel House • William of Tyre (d. 1190) noted that in Jerusalem pilgrims were buried outside the city walls in the field of Akeldama. In the Hinnom Valley to the south-east of the Old City remains can be seen of a large vaulted charnel house. According to tradition, this is the field Judas Iscariot purchased for thirty pieces of silver, and where himself was buried. Dead pilgrims from the Hospital of St. John were brought to this charnel-house for burial. • The site was used for burial long before the Crusader period. A number of Second Temple Burial chambers can be seen carved in the rock just outside the charnel house. The vault is constructed partly out of the natural rock, but also incorporates some earlier tombs. The Franks expanded the original chamber to northward, constructing a barrel vault adjacent to it. There are small square openings in the roof through which the dead were dropped (Boas, 185-186).

24. Tomb of the Virgin Mary Entrance to the Tomb of the Virgin Mary • This is what remains of the structure built by the Crusaders in the first half of 12th century C.E. Queen Melisende was buried in the church of the Tomb of the Virgin Mary. William of Tyre relates that Melisende was buried in a stone crypt to the right of the descent to the tomb of the Virgin (William of Tyre, 18.32). To the right of the façade is a corridor leading to the Grotto of Gethsemane.

25. The Franks constructed chamber tombs (aedicules) over the Tomb of Christ and the Tomb of the Virgin Mary. This was mainly in order to beautify the remains as their importance demanded. There was also a practical reason for covering the remains: pilgrims habitually broke pieces off the tombs for keepsakes, and marble encasings made this more difficult. Tomb of Christ in Church of the Holy Sepulchre

26. Jews and the Crusades:Benjamin of Tudela • During the Middle Ages more Jews lived on the Iberian peninsula than in any other European land. There lived in Spain a man named Benjamin ben Jonah, called Benjamin of Tudela by historians, who took notes on the places and people he encountered as he traveled around the Mediterranean some two generations after the Crusaders overran Palestine. • Benjamin wrote his Itinerary during the revival of Islam, which took place between the Second and Third Crusades. His chronicle is a rich source for twelfth-century life in Mediterranean lands from a Jewish perspective. His travels ended circa 1173.

27. Benjamin of Tudela describes Jerusalem as “a small city, fortified by three walls. It is full of people whom the Mohammedans call Jacobites, Syrians, Greeks, Georgians and Franks, and of people of all tongues. It contains a dyeing-house, for which the Jews pay a small rent annually to the king [i.e., Baldwin III, d. 1162], on condition that besides the Jews no other dyers be allowed in Jerusalem. There are about 200 Jews who dwell under the Tower of David in one corner of the city.” (Adler’s translation, p. 22.) Early 12th century Crusader map of Jerusalem

28. Jewish Perspectives • Four Hebrew chronicles have survived which relate the misfortunes of the eleventh and twelfth century European Jewish communities situated on the Crusaders’ path. • The Chronicles inform us that when persecution from the Crusades first fell upon them, the Jews understood themselves as a continuation of the endless sufferings which God had chosen them to endure.

29. The Mainz Anonymous (or The Narrative of the Old Persecutions) • This chronicle relates what took place during the First Crusade. It’s focus is upon three great Rhineland communities–Speyer, Worms, and Mainz. The narrative progresses chronologically from the first announcement of the crusade in 1095, through the destruction of Mainz Jewry in late May 1096. • The author relates one episode where a Christian corpse was paraded though town by conspirators, who claimed that the Jews had boiled it and poured the resultant fluids into the town water supply, attempting to poison the populace of Worms. This allegation sparked a riot against the Jews. At this point the author of this chronicle, for the first time in the narrative, depicts acts of Jewish martyrdom.

30. The Chronicle of Solomon bar Simson • The author of The Chronicle of Solomon bar Simson took a number of disparate accounts and wove them into a comprehensive report on Jewish suffering in 1096. The central concern of this chronicle lay with the theological issues raised by Jewish suffering. The narrative depicts the Jews and their traditional responses of repentance, prayer, and charity. In spite of Jews’ pious efforts, God failed to respond. The author views God’s rejection of the Jews as divine punishment for the great sin of their ancestors–the sin of the Golden calf. • “But their Father did not answer them; He obstructed their prayers, concealing Himself in a cloud through which their prayers could not pass, and He abhorred their tent, and He removed them out of His sight–all of this having been decreed by Him to take place in the day when I visit; and this was the generation that had been chosen by Him to be His portion, for they had the strength and the fortitude to stand in His Sanctuary, and fulfill His word, and sanctify His Great Name in His world. It is of such as these that King David said: Bless the Lord, you his angels, you mighty in strength, that fulfill His word.” (Trans. S. Eidleberg, p. 22.)

31. On their way to Jerusalem, the Crusaders left death and destruction behind in the Jewish communities along the Rhine and Danube. In May, 1096, about 800 Jews were murdered in Worms, while many others chose suicidal martyrdom. In Regensburg, the Jews were thrown into the Danube to be "baptized." In Mainz, Cologne, Prague and many other cities, thousands of Jews were killed and their possessions plundered. • Not only Jews themselves, but also their books were attacked. In 1239, Nicholas Donin wrote to Pope Gregory, accusing the Talmud of blasphemy. The Pope, in turn, ordered the Talmud to be put on trial because it allegedly contained lies about Jesus, Mary, and Christianity. In June of 1242, The Talmud was confiscated and burned (Einbinder 2002, 70-75). Panel by Berruguete, 15th century

32. Image Credits • Slide 1: 12th century map: Boas, 16. • Slide 2: City map: Benvenisti, 50. • Slide 3: City map: Pringle, Secular Buildings, 53 • Slide 4: City map: Pringle, Secular Buildings, 53. • Slide 5: Detail of Hospitaller’s Quarter: Boas, 23 • Slide 7: Al Aqsa Mosque: Prawer, World, image 72. • Slide 8: Solomon’s Stables: Prawer, World, image 71. • Slide 9: Market: Bahat, 91 . • Slide 10: St Anne inscription: Clermont-Ganneau, 120 & Boas, 27. • Slide 11: Painted Glass: Prawer, Kingdom, Charlemagne’s bowl: Lesourd, [28], Canteen, Prawer, World, image 28. • Slide 12: Medieval slip-ware bowl: Pringle, Pilgrim’s Castle plate LIV • Slide 13: Bahat, page 91 . • Slide 14: www.chihuly.com/jerusalem/jerudescript4.html • Slide 15: Plan of David’s Citadel: Pringle, Secular Buildings, 54. • Slide 16: Bahat, 90 & Madden, 25. • Slide 17: Plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre: Smail, 126,128 & Boas, 125; façade: www.bibleplaces.com/holysepulcher. • Slide 18: http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ef27.htm • Slide 19: Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 220. • Slide 22: www.bibleplaces.com/holysepulcher. • Slide 27: http://jeru.huji.ac.il/jeru/maps2.html • Slide 31: www.friends-partners/beyon-the-pale/eng captions/11-3.html.

33. Bibliography • Adler, Marcus Nathan. The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. London: Oxford University Press, 1907. • Bahat, D. and C. T. Rubinstein. The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem. Translated by S. Ketko. Jerusalem: Carta, 1990. • Benvenisti, Meron. The Crusaders in the Holy Land. New York; MacMillan, 1970. • Boas, Adrian J. Crusader Archaeology: The Material Culture of the Latin East. New York: Routledge, 1999. • . Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape and Art in the Holy City Under Frankish Rule. New York: Routledge, 2001. • Clermont-Ganneau, Charles. Archaeological Researches in Palestine During the Years 1873-1874.2 Vol. Trans. Aubrey Stewart. London: Palestine Exploration Fund, 1899. • Eidelberg, Shlomo, ed. The Jews and the Crusaders: The Hebrew Chronicles of the First and Second Crusades. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1977. • Johns, C.N. Pilgrims’ Castle (‘Atlit) David’s Tower (Jerusalem) and Qal‘at ar-Rabad (‘Ajlun): Three Middle Eastern Castles from the Time of the Crusades. Denys Pringle ed. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 1997. • Madden, T. F., ed. Crusades: The Illustrated History. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2004. • Munro, Dana Carleton. The Kingdom of the Crusaders. New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1935. (Relations between crusaders and natives) • Paul Lesourd and Jean Marie Ramiz. On the Path of the Crusaders. ed. Miriam Ismojik. Israel: Masada Press,1969. • Prawer, Joshua. The Crusaders’ Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages.New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972. (The conquered lands and their people,, government, the church, pilgrims and pilgrimages, the Jews, oriental churches, warfare and fortifications, economic life, and the arts). • . The World of the Crusaders. New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972. • Pringle, Denys. “Architecture in the Latin East 1098-1571.” Pages 160-83 in The Oxford Illustrated History of The Crusades. Edited by J. Riley-Smith. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. • _______. Foritification and Settlement in Crusader Palestine. Burlington, V: Ashgate, 2000. • . Pilgrim’s Castle (‘Atlit), David’s Tower (Jerusalem), and Qal‘at ar-Rabad (‘Ajlun). Brookfield, VA: Ashgate, 1997. • . Secular Buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: An Archaeological Gazetteer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. • Rubin, Miri. Gentile: The Narrative Assault on Late Medieval Jews. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. • Smail, R.C. The Crusaders: In Syria and the Holy Land. New York: Praeger, 1973. • Site Designers: Donald H. Carlson, Russel Mack, Andrew J. Riley