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Opposition to the Liberal Order. Dissent from Late Victorian Society. Attacks on Capitalist Civilization. By the late 19 th century, liberal society was largely successful in its transformation of Europe.
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Opposition to the Liberal Order Dissent from Late Victorian Society
Attacks on Capitalist Civilization • By the late 19th century, liberal society was largely successful in its transformation of Europe. • Even so, it was attacked on both the left and the right by those who sought to reform it or bring about its demise. • These movements would bring into question the cult of progress which had dominated much of the second half of the 19th century.
Working Class Movements • The First International • The International Working Men’s Association was organized in 1864. • The meeting of workers from around the world was dominated by Karl Marx from the start. • He would eventually expel French and English socialists who disagreed with Marxism. • The First International would last until 1872.
The Socialist Parties • Beginning in the 1870s, socialist political parties began gaining more power across Europe. • With the exception of Britain, these parties generally adhered to Marxism. • Conflicts between those who hoped to win parliamentary victories and those who wanted revolution caused disunity.
Trade Unionism • Membership in trade unions soared in the late 19th century. • Factory workers who organized large scale strikes flexed more power than they ever had before. • The goals of unions were often limited to their situation, but with the influence of Marxism and anarchism, they often took on broader social protests.
Anarchism • Anarchism gained a greater following among the poor and oppressed. • Anarchists opposed all imposed authority and middle class values, some called for abolition of private property, individualism, and pacifism. • Anarchists (and other radicals) were responsible for a series of terrorists acts and assassinations in the years leading up to World War I.
Mikhail Bakunin • He was the most famous early anarchist. • Bakunin became involved in the 1848 revolutions and was exiled to Siberia. • When he escaped, he joined the First International. • Disagreements with Marx led to his expulsion in 1872. • He strongly believed in nationalism.
The Christian Critique • Catholicism • The Catholic Church was at odds with liberalism • In Pope Pius IX’s Quanta Cura (1864), the Church attacked human reason, the authority of the state, and the rights of the Church. • In the First Vatican Council (1869-70), papal infallibility was reaffirmed. • Pope Leo XIII and Pius X followed with similar criticisms of liberalism and communism Pope Pius IX
The Christian Critique • Social Action • Churches and related organizations began expanding and taking on new roles in helping the poor and oppressed of Europe. • Organizations and churches like the Salvation Army, founded by Methodist minister William Booth in England, took on greater roles in caring for the poor.
Growing Pessimism • There was growing pessimism even among those who desired radical change. • George Sorel questioned Marxism as to optimistic, instead focusing on anarcho-communism that was chosen by individual will. • Henri-Louis Bergson echo these sentiments, focusing on intuition over intellect as the driving force for change.
Growing Pessimism • Revival of the Right • During the late 19th century and early 20th century, there was also a revival in conservative thought. • Much of this was driven in reaction to the liberal domination of the time and the growing power of the left among the workers. • This revival pulled on nationalism and tradition to keep power in the hands of the traditional ruling elite.
Anti-Semitism • Throughout much of Europe, a wave of anti-Semitic feeling was slowly rising. • This was particularly visible in Russia, with the enactment of the May Laws in 1882 (these severely restricted rights for Jews). • Throughout most of Europe, society was tolerant (France granted emancipation in 1790), but anti-Semitic undercurrents remained and were exposed through incidents such as they Dreyfus Affair in France.
Friedrich Nietzsche • German philosopher who criticized Christianity’s beliefs in humility, pity, and altruism. • He exalted the will, stating the human will gives life meaning. • He stressed the idea of the superman, or heroic leader, who broke the rules and led a higher level of existence.
