The British Library's Manuscripts: A Journey Through Time

כתבי יד עתיקים בספרייה הבריטית כתבי-יד עד סוף המאה השלוש-עשרה מצגת ראשונה מצגות קלריטה ואפרים The British Library's Manuscripts I

מצגת זו אינה כוללת את כתבי היד היהודיים שבספרייה הבריטית. להם הקדשנו שתי מצגות נפרדות.

The Sir John Ritblat Galleryin the Library's St Pancras building hosts a permanent display of the British Library’s greatest treasures. Over 200 beautiful and fascinating items: sacred texts from many faiths, maps and views, early printing, literary, historical, scientific and musical works from over the centuries and around the world. באולם התצוגה של אוצרות הספרייה הלאומית הבריטית: כתבי יד עתיקים מהעולם בשפות שונות, כתבי יד של מלחינים והספרים הראשונים שהודפסו, ביניהם תנ"ך גוטנברג על קלף ועל נייר...

The term ‘manuscript’ comes from the Latin for ‘handwritten’: before the invention of printing all books had to be written out by hand. This was a time-consuming and labour-intensive process, and could take months or years. Although paper was available in southern Europe from the twelfth century, its use did not become widespread until the late Middle Ages - there was no paper mill in England until the fifteenth century. Before this the usual support for writing was parchment (also known as vellum), made from stretched, treated animal skins. A large manuscript might require one whole cow- or sheep-skin to make a folded sheet of two to four pages, and a thick book could require the hides of entire herds. Medieval books were therefore expensive items.

Gandharan Scrolls These scroll fragments, from an extraordinary collection of birch bark writings from ancient Gandhara in present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, may represent the oldest surviving Buddhist texts (and also the oldest South Asian manuscripts) ever discovered.

3rd-century Gospel of Thomas Unearthed in the rubbish tips of the ancient Egyptian city of Oxyrhynchus, south of Cairo, this fragment from a papyrus roll is over 1600 years old. It contains a Gospel not found in the standard Bible: that of Thomas, whose account of the life of Jesus is as interesting for what it leaves out as for what it includes.

Some manuscripts were made even more precious by ‘illumination’. This term comes from the Latin word for ‘lit up’ or ‘enlightened’ and refers to the use of bright colours and gold to embellish initial letters or to portray entire scenes. Sometimes the initials were purely decorative, but often they work with the text to mark important passages, or to enhance or comment on the meaning of the text. The British Library has one of the finest collections of illuminated manuscripts in the world, rivalled by very few other institutions. This tour will give you a quick introduction both to some of the Library’s treasures and to the history of manuscript illumination in the West.

Codex Sinaiticus Despite its rather austere appearance, the Codex Sinaiticus is a treasure beyond price. Produced in the middle of the fourth century, the Codex is one of the two earliest Christian Bibles. (The other is the Codex Vaticanus in Rome.) Within its beautifully handwritten Greek text are the earliest surviving copy of the complete New Testament and the earliest and best copies of some of the Jewish scriptures, in the form that they were adopted by the Christian Church. As one of the earliest luxury codices to survive in large part, the Codex forms one of the most important landmarks in the history of the book

קודקס (Codex ) פירושו ספר. משמעותה המקורית של המילה : "גזע עץ " שכן לוחות עץ שימשו הבסיס עליו כתבו שעה שלא הכירו את שולחן הכתיבה. מִצְחָף או קודקס בעברית הוא כינוי שניתן לספריםשנכתבו שלא בתבניתמגילהאלא בתבנית דפים הבאים זה על זה, בדומה לספר הנהוג בימינו. הכינוי נכון לכל סוגי המצעים לספרים: עורוגוויל, קלףופפירוס. עד המאה השלישית לספירה כתבוספרים בתבניתשלמגילהנגללת דוגמת ספרי התורההנוהגת עד היום . מכאן הכינוי מגילות לספרים הנפרדים. מכאן גם הכינוי "בית עקד הספרים" שכן ספרי המגילות היו נעקדים (נקשרים) ברצועות עור כדי שהמגילות לא תפתחנה מעצמן. החל מהמאה השנייה לספירה החל מעבר איטי ממגילה לקודקס בספרות היוונית והרומאית, מעבר שהפך דומיננטי במאה הרביעית, חמישית . לאחרהמאה השלישיתהופיעו המצחפים הראשונים, בתבנית כתבי היד העשויים דפים כספר. המילה מצחף מוכרת מתקופת הגאוניםשורשה מן הערבית )مصحف), ואפשר שמקורה בצפחה רוצה לומר שכבה דקה. בתחילה נכתבו המצחפים על גבי פפירוסים, ועם הזמן נכתבו גם על קלף ועור. גם כתבי היד החשובים של התנ"ך, כגוןכתר ארם צובא, בנויים כמצחפים.

Syriac Bible Signed and dated 463-4 by its scribe, a bishop called John, this important early copy of the first five books of the Bible is in Syriac, a dialect of Eastern Aramaic (Aramaic being the language spoken by Jesus). It comes from an area now in Syria, Iraq and Turkey.

Canon tables, in Greek The Golden Canon Tables, Constantinople ? 6th or 7th century.

Lindisfarne Gospels This legacy of an artist monk living in North umbria in the early eighth century is a precious testament to the tenacity of Christian belief during one of the most turbulent periods of British history. Costly in time and materials, superb in design, the manuscript is among our greatest artistic and religious treasures. It was made and used at Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island, a major religious community that housed the shrine of St Cuthbert, who died in 687.

The Gospel Book, or Book of the Gospels (Greek: Εὐαγγέλιον, Evangélion) is a codex or bound volume containing one or more of the four Gospels of the Christian New Testament. It contains the full text in normal sequence, thus differing from an Evangeliary, which only has those portions of the Gospels used in the Mass and other services.

Eighth-century Qur'an The Ma'il Qur'an is one of the very earliest Qur'ans in the world, dating back to the eighth century. Not only that, but it also probably hails from the Hijaz region of Arabia – a region which contains the holy places of Mecca and Medina, homes of the Prophet Muhammad.

Kufic Qur'an Early Qur'ans are important as evidence of the development of the written recording of Islam's holy book. This copy of the Qur'an in Arabic, probably from the ninth century, is copied on to vellum and uses an early script called kufic.

Adam and Eve The creation of Adam and Eve. God gives Eve to Adam, and warns of the Tree of Knowledge. Adam and Eve eat from the Tree of Knowledge; God confronts them. The Expulsion from the idealized landscape of Eden to labour on thorny soil; Adam digs, while Eve suckles child Image taken from Moutier-Grandval Bible. Originally published/produced in Tours [St Martin]; circa 834-843.

Diamond Sutra Hidden for centuries in a sealed-up cave in north-west China, this copy of the ‘Diamond Sutra’ is the world’s earliest complete survival of a dated printed book. It was made in 868. Seven strips of yellow-stained paper were printed from carved wooden blocks and pasted together to form a scroll over 5m long. Though written in Chinese, the text is one of the most important sacred works of the Buddhist faith, which was founded in India.

Ashem Vohu This ninth- or 10th-century Sogdian manuscript from Dunhuang, China, contains a version of one of the holiest Zoroastrian prayers: the Ashem Vohu, composed originally in the Avestan (old Iranian) language.

New Testament from 10th-century Constantinople In this impressive New Testament - perhaps the most beautiful example in Greek in the British Library - a picture shows the Evangelist St Luke at his desk, his writing implements ready to hand. It serves as the frontispiece to the Gospel of St Luke. The manuscript was made at a high point in the history of the capital of Eastern Christendom, and demonstrates the unbroken tradition of the use of Greek as the literate language of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Aratus of Soli: “Phaenomena” The Constellation Cetus, the sea monster from which Perseus rescued AndromedaAn astronomical work written at Fleury in France but probably illuminated by an English artist, showing links between England and the Continent in the tenth century.

Benedictional of St Aethelwold This manuscript, which was made for the personal use of Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester from 963 to 984, one of the leaders of the late 10th-century monastic revival in England, is an outstanding masterpiece of Anglo-Saxon book painting. Benedictional of St Aethelwold: Entry into Jerusalem. Winchester, c.970-980

Building of the Tower of BabelGenesis 11, 5. God descends, by means of a ladder, to witness the building of the Tower of Babel Image taken from Old English Illustrated Hexateuch. Originally published/produced in England [Canterbury]; second quarter of 11th century.

Old English Hexateuch As the earliest copy in English of part of the Old Testament and with over 400 illustrations, this manuscript is both remarkable and unique. The collaboration of a team of translators, scribes and an artist over many years, it is a vivid example of the demand for sacred texts in 11th-century England that were accessible to everyday people, who wanted a Bible presented in a way they could understand. Adam naming the animals

The Hexateuch ("six scrolls") is the first six books of the Hebrew Bible (the Torah or Pentateuch and the book of Joshua). Some scholars propose that Joshua represents part of the northern Yahwist source (c 950 BC), detached from JE document by the Deuteronomist (c 650-621) and incorporated into the Deuteronomic history, with the books of Judges, Kings, and Samuel. Reasons for this unity, in addition to the presumed presence of the other documentary traditions, are taken from comparisons of the thematic concerns that underlie the narrative surface of the texts. For instance, the Book of Joshua stresses the continuity of leadership from Moses to Joshua. Furthermore the theme of Joshua, the fulfillment of God's promise to lead the Israelites to the Promised Land, complements the thematic material of the Pentateuch, which had ended with the Israelites on the border of the Promised Land ready to enter. The theory that Joshua completes the Torah in a 'Hexateuch' is advanced by critical scholars in the new field of "history of traditions", but the majority of traditional scholars follow the older rabbinic tradition, as it was expressed by the compilers of the Jewish Encyclopedia a century ago, that the Pentateuch is a complete work in itself.

Joseph and his brothersGenesis 43, 15-24. Above; Joseph's brothers, with their gift, prostrate themselves; at the sight of Benjamin, Joseph has to retire to his chamber to weep. Below; on Joseph's return, there is segregated feasting. Old English Illustrated Hexateuch.

Meeting of Jacob and Esau Genesis 33, 1-4. Meeting of Jacob and Esau; Esau's retinue of armed men Old English Illustrated Hexateuch.

Battle of Sodom and Gomorrah Genesis 14, 1-12. Text, with upper part of illustration. The battle against Sodom and Gomorrah Image taken from Old English Illustrated Hexateuch.

11th century Qur'an This elegant, detailed Qur'an is one of the earliest dated examples of naskhi script, the Arabic calligraphic hand which became one of the most popular styles for such manuscripts thanks to its legibility.

Theodore Psalter This profusely illustrated Psalms from 1066 is possibly the most significant surviving manuscript illuminated in Constantinople. It was made at a time when the anti-image movement of the iconoclasts had relatively recently been beaten down, and representational art could again flourish. The name comes from the monk who illustrated the manuscript.

Psalter A psalter is a volume containing the Book of Psalms and which often contains other devotional material. Various schemes for the arrangement of the Psalms are described in Latin Psalters. In the early Middle Ages psalters were amongst the most popular types of illuminated manuscripts, rivaled only by the Gospel Books, from which they gradually took over as the type of manuscript chosen for lavish illumination. Medieval psalters often included a calendar, a litany of saints, canticles from the Old and New Testaments, as well as other devotional texts. Many psalters were lavishly illuminated with full-page miniatures as well as decorated initials.

Sedulius Scotus, Expositio super primam edicionem Donati grammatici Germany; 2nd half of the 12th century Full-page miniature of Donatus writing his grammar, his ink-pot held by a monk labelled 'Heinre'(?), with two short poems in hexameters in the upper left and upper right corners: the first poem compares the breaking open of fruits, nuts, wine-jars and bees' cells, which in each case reveals the more valuable contents inside, to the similar discovery of knowledge, once the real meaning is found 'beneath' the literal meaning; the second poem is a simple tribute to the scribe of the manuscript, the painter of Donatus' portrait and the author of the manuscript; at the end of Sedulius Scotus's Expositio super primam edicionem Donati grammatici.

Prudentius: “Psychomachia” England’ St Albans’ c.1120 Superbia (pride) falls into a pit and is then beheaded by Humilitas (Humility)

Silos Apocalypse This spectacular manuscript of Beatus of Liébana's commentary on the Apocalypse survives in near perfect condition from the first decade of the 12th century. It was copied and illuminated in the Spanish monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos, near Burgos, at a time when the monastery's scriptorium was producing its finest work. Painted in brilliant colours and embellished with gold and silver leaf, its 106 striking miniatures illustrate the most extraordinary scenes in the Christian Bible - a triumph of artistic vision.

אפוקליפסה (Apocalypse, מילה שמקורה בשפה היוונית) משמעותה "חזון". כיון שרוב הספרות האפוקליפטית עוסקת באסכטולוגיה, קיבלה המילה משמעות משנית ועממית הקשורה לאחרית הימים. עם זאת, חשוב לזכור שאין זה הכרחי שחיבור אפוקליפטי יעסוק באחרית הימים. הגדרת הז'אנר לקוחה משמו של הספר האחרון בברית החדשה, חזון יוחנן, המתייחס לאחרית הימים ולהופעתו של ישו מחדש. כיום המושג מייצג את כל התפיסות הנוגעות לאחרית הימים ולגאולה כזו או אחרת מהמציאות המוכרת לנו. זהו ספר ידוע ביותר בתחום, והשפעתו עצומה. בספר זה מופיעים ביטויים ומושגים רבים כגון: "ארבעת פרשי האפוקליפסה", "ירושלים של מעלה" ורבים נוספים. הספר היה בסיס לאלפי יצירות אמנות בכל התחומים והשפיע אף על מהלכים בהיסטוריה כגון מסעות הצלב. עם זאת, התפיסה האפוקליפטית התחילה אף לפני כתיבת הספר וסביר להניח שיוחנן כותב הבשורה (שלא לגמרי ברור מיהו), מחברו של חזון יוחנן, כבר הכיר את חזון אחרית הימים כפי שהוא מופיע בספר דניאל.

Harley Trilingual Psalter Palermo, Italy, between 1130 and 1154. Psalm 81

David and lion; David and Samuel Above; David as a shepherd rescues a lamb from the lion. Left, David stands with a crook, with two goats. Right; David rescues a lamb from the lion's mouth. Below; Annointing of David by Samuel. Samuel holds the horn of oil which he pours over David's head. Jesse stands in the middle, with David's six brothers on right Winchester Psalter [Psalter of Henry of Blois; Psalter of St Swithun]. between 1121-1161 ספר התהילים של ווינצ`סטר -דוד והאריה, דוד ושמואל למעלה : דוד הרועה מופיע פעמיים , כשהוא ניצב ומטהו בידו ורועה צאן אביו וכשהוא מציל שה משיני האריה. למטה: שמואל הנביא מושח את דוד למלך בעוד אביו ואחיו מביטים בפליאה.

Hrabanus Maurus: “De Laudibus Sancte Crucis” Rhineland, Arnstein, 1170s. The Emperor Louis the Pions

La Charite Psalter – France, La Charite-Sur-Loire, end of the 12th century King David pursued by his sons

Bestiary – The goat and the bull. Northern England, c. 1200-1210

A bestiary, or Bestiarum vocabulum is a compendium of beasts. Bestiaries were made popular in the Middle Ages in illustrated volumes that described various animals, birds and even rocks. The natural history and illustration of each beast was usually accompanied by a moral lesson. This reflected the belief that the world itself was the Word of God, and that every living thing had its own special meaning. The bestiary, then, is also a reference to the symbolic language of animals in Western Christian art and literature. Bestiaries were particularly popular in England and France around the 12th century and were mainly compilations of earlier texts.

Entry in Jerusalem Entry into Jerusalem. Palm Sunday. Christ seated on a donkey enters Jerusalem followed by a joyous crowd; The elders of the city waiting at the gates of the city. This manuscript contains passages from the Gospels in liturgical sequence that are used as readings in church services. Tempera on paper. Image taken from Syriac Lectionary. Originally published/produced in Mosul (Iraq), 1216-1220. Language: Syriac

Giraldus Cambrensis “Topographica Hibernia” SouthernEngland,c.1220 The legend of the wolf that talked with the priest of Ulster

Title Missal, including a calendar, a Gradual for summer, a Lectionary for the days after Easter and Pentecost Origin Austria or Germany Script Protogothic

Leaf from an Arabic translation of the Materia Medica of Dioscorides 1224

The de Brailes Hours is the earliest surviving English Book of Hours, written in Oxford in the thirteenth century and illuminated by William de Brailes.

Awag Vank' Gospels Inventively decorated with peacocks, this set of tables - a supplement to the Four Gospels - helped Bible readers in 13th-century Armenia. It enabled them to find parallel passages in different Gospels, and so compare and contrast the various accounts.

Matthew Paris: “Historia Anglorum” England’ St Albans, 1250-9 King Henry III sailing to Brittany Detached Leaf from a Psalter Germany’ mid 13th century. Scenes from the story of Samson

World map Circular world map, with Jerusalem in the centre. Image taken fromMiscellaneous Writings. England [St Alban's Abbey and Wymondham]; between 1247 and 1258. Cotton Julius D. VII, f.46Language: Latin

Lyre Psalter Normandy, Lyre, second half of the 13th century David killing the bear and the lion that threatened his flocks

The British Library's Manuscripts: A Journey Through Time