PSYC 2006: Childhood Development

1. PSYC 2006: Childhood Development INSTRUCTOR: Stephanie Rees ROOM: Monday to Thursday 6-9pm

2. OVERVIEW OF COURSE from birth to adolescence development: biological, social, perceptual, and cognitive theories GRADING: 2 tests at 15% each (30%) best 2 out of 3 assignments at 20% each (40%) Final exam worth 30% GO OVER SCHEDULE HERE GET OK ON SCHEDULE AND MARKING SCHEME EXPLAIN ABOUT TIGHT SCHEDULE, SO WILL BE DIFFERENT THAN REGULAR TERM COURSE LECTURES ON WEBSITE!!!! COMING SOON�.GO OVER SCHEDULE HERE GET OK ON SCHEDULE AND MARKING SCHEME EXPLAIN ABOUT TIGHT SCHEDULE, SO WILL BE DIFFERENT THAN REGULAR TERM COURSE LECTURES ON WEBSITE!!!! COMING SOON�.

3. THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Chapter One WE�RE ALL INDIVIDUALS!! we all go through many of the same stages of development, but we do not develop the same way Sometimes go through different stages Sometimes go through stages more quickly and/or more slowly Resolve conflicts throughout life span, but differently; ie. make different choices to end up where we are Example: let�s say that two of you get the same result in this class; does this mean you developed academically in the same way? No: breakdown of marks will be different; motivation will be different (one of you wants to teach, the other may want to become a pediatrician); one of you in psychology, the other in biology So despite the fact that you both have reached the same place, got there through different means and will continue to different destinations MY RESEARCH: Developmental psychobiology (animal models) looking at the effects of early environment on the adolescent stress system Also, look at maternal behavior in adulthood Will talk about later in course (and next course)WE�RE ALL INDIVIDUALS!! we all go through many of the same stages of development, but we do not develop the same way Sometimes go through different stages Sometimes go through stages more quickly and/or more slowly Resolve conflicts throughout life span, but differently; ie. make different choices to end up where we are Example: let�s say that two of you get the same result in this class; does this mean you developed academically in the same way? No: breakdown of marks will be different; motivation will be different (one of you wants to teach, the other may want to become a pediatrician); one of you in psychology, the other in biology So despite the fact that you both have reached the same place, got there through different means and will continue to different destinations MY RESEARCH: Developmental psychobiology (animal models) looking at the effects of early environment on the adolescent stress system Also, look at maternal behavior in adulthood Will talk about later in course (and next course)

4. LECTURE OVERVIEW Definitions of development Areas of study Recurring issues The Biopsychosocial Framework Developmental Theories Developmental Research Strategies

5. What do we mean by �DEVELOPMENT�? Changes over the life span: Conception & Prenatal Development Birth Infancy Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Aging Death we don�t stop developing until we�re dead (decomposing?) Study of development at all stages of life What happens in earlier stages can profoundly affect later stages Start in diapers end in diapers? THIS COURSE: from conception to adolescence we don�t stop developing until we�re dead (decomposing?) Study of development at all stages of life What happens in earlier stages can profoundly affect later stages Start in diapers end in diapers? THIS COURSE: from conception to adolescence

6. AGE RANGES Newborn: birth to 1 month Infant: 1 month to 1 year Toddler: 1 to 2 years Preschooler: 2 to 6 years School-age child: 6 to 12 years Adolescent: 12 to 20 years Young adult: 20 to 40 years Middle-aged adult: 40 to 60 years Young-old adult: 60 to 80 years Old-old adult: 80 years +

7. AREAS OF STUDY Biological issues Social issues Cognitive issues Perceptual issues Stage Theories of Development EXPLAIN STAGE THEORIES A LITTLE IN-DEPTH�..EXPLAIN STAGE THEORIES A LITTLE IN-DEPTH�..

8. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Biological issues: how brain areas change Social issues: communicating with others Cognitive issues: learning to assign meaning Perceptual issues: auditory system Stage Theories of Development: from sounds to words to sentences�..

9. RECURRING ISSUES Somethings to remember at all stages of developmentSomethings to remember at all stages of development

10. NATURE vs. NUTURE Genetics and/or Environment Which is more important? Can we separate the effects of these two? How much influence does each have? Intelligence? Social Behavior? Employment? NATURE VS. NURTURE: degree to which genetics and/or heredity influence development vs. degree to which environment influences development No traits are exclusively nature or nurture parents are basically to blame for many of our traits/development Genetics: all the parents Environment: parents, peers, culture, society, school; creates great variability Gene/Environment interaction: through genetics, we are predisposed to react certain ways to the environment Ex. if you have genes for extroversion: will be more social, outgoing when in social environments Ex. predisposition for cancer, but will not be evident unless change in environment (ie. lifestyle of smoking, obesity, etc.) From text: individuals inherit predisposition of mental retardation, but only if exposed to dairy products PREDISPOSITION FOR SOMETHING, BUT NEED PROPER ENVIRONMENT FOR IT TO APPEAR But: environment can change genes Ex. mutations; behavior can change genetic functions NATURE VS. NURTURE: degree to which genetics and/or heredity influence development vs. degree to which environment influences development No traits are exclusively nature or nurture parents are basically to blame for many of our traits/development Genetics: all the parents Environment: parents, peers, culture, society, school; creates great variability Gene/Environment interaction: through genetics, we are predisposed to react certain ways to the environment Ex. if you have genes for extroversion: will be more social, outgoing when in social environments Ex. predisposition for cancer, but will not be evident unless change in environment (ie. lifestyle of smoking, obesity, etc.) From text: individuals inherit predisposition of mental retardation, but only if exposed to dairy products PREDISPOSITION FOR SOMETHING, BUT NEED PROPER ENVIRONMENT FOR IT TO APPEAR But: environment can change genes Ex. mutations; behavior can change genetic functions

11. CONTINUITY vs. DISCONTINUITY Continuity: traits that are stable over time Discontinuity: traits that change over time and with experience smooth progression vs. abrupt shifts Is it the same for all traits and for all individuals? are you the same person as you were when you were 5? Think about it Yes and no�. If quiet introspective five year-old, quiet introspective adult; but somethings can change (ex. athleticism) What about the terrible twos? FOR LATER: WHAT ABOUT STAGE THEORIES? ARE THIS ABOUT SMOOTH PROGRESSION OR ABOUT ABRUPT SHIFTS????are you the same person as you were when you were 5? Think about it Yes and no�. If quiet introspective five year-old, quiet introspective adult; but somethings can change (ex. athleticism) What about the terrible twos? FOR LATER: WHAT ABOUT STAGE THEORIES? ARE THIS ABOUT SMOOTH PROGRESSION OR ABOUT ABRUPT SHIFTS????

12. UNIVERSAL vs. CONTEXT-SPECIFIC Do we all develop in the same way? What about different environments, cultures, values, etc.? do these make a difference? Rates of development Stages of development one path of development or several paths of development? Ex. cultural differences? Could children develop through the same stages as we do if they are from another culture? We will see later that IQ tests can be culturally biased, so very hard to determine if this is true COMES BACK TO THE NATURE-NURTURE ISSUE Depends quite a bit on the extent of the influence of the environment: if the environment plays a very large and influential role in development, then it would be more correct to say that development is context-specific If heredity plays a big role: may be more universal specific in that we are all programmed to develop in a certain way Rates of development: are these universal or context-specific? Stages of development: are these universal or context-specific? one path of development or several paths of development? Ex. cultural differences? Could children develop through the same stages as we do if they are from another culture? We will see later that IQ tests can be culturally biased, so very hard to determine if this is true COMES BACK TO THE NATURE-NURTURE ISSUE Depends quite a bit on the extent of the influence of the environment: if the environment plays a very large and influential role in development, then it would be more correct to say that development is context-specific If heredity plays a big role: may be more universal specific in that we are all programmed to develop in a certain way Rates of development: are these universal or context-specific? Stages of development: are these universal or context-specific?

13. THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL FRAMEWORK BIOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY SOCIOLOGYBIOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY SOCIOLOGY

14. influences from the individual�s biology, psychology, and from society (heredity/environment. Heredity/environment, environment) Many different combinations of these forces: produce great individual variabilityinfluences from the individual�s biology, psychology, and from society (heredity/environment. Heredity/environment, environment) Many different combinations of these forces: produce great individual variability

15. BIOLOGICAL FORCES Biological development: Brain maturation Transitions: Puberty, Menopause, etc. Genetics Can be affected by environment example: effects of early environment very dependent on genetics But�. Environment can play an important role Environment: stress, nutrition, exercise Ex. exercise on brain cells very dependent on genetics But�. Environment can play an important role Environment: stress, nutrition, exercise Ex. exercise on brain cells

16. PSYCHOLOGICAL FORCES Characteristics of personality Internal cognitive, emotional, personality, perceptual, and related factors that influence behavior focus of this course important: behavior Biology can affect psychological forces: predispositions for certain personality traits, etc. How you describe a person Great individual variabilityimportant: behavior Biology can affect psychological forces: predispositions for certain personality traits, etc. How you describe a person Great individual variability

17. SOCIOCULTURAL FORCES How people and environments interact and relate Individuals and institutions: form culture Ex. family, cohort, country, etc. Can change with times (history) Societal values change over generations Inventions, language, etc. very environmental: great variability can occur here When you are born can play an important role: inventions such as TV, e-mail, internet, microwave, cars, etc. DOES THIS MEAN WE SHOULD BE REVISITING HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES? WHAT ABOUT MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY AND INCREASE IN AVAILABLE INFORMATION?very environmental: great variability can occur here When you are born can play an important role: inventions such as TV, e-mail, internet, microwave, cars, etc. DOES THIS MEAN WE SHOULD BE REVISITING HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES? WHAT ABOUT MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY AND INCREASE IN AVAILABLE INFORMATION?

18. LIFE-CYCLE FORCES forces interact: not independent of one another Timing: same event can have different consequences depending on when it happens during development PUBERTY: biological process that can have psychological consequences (early vs. late), but these consequences are based on society�s views Ex. girls going through early puberty: good in certain societies (earlier reproducability) bad in others (bullied); can lead to increased self-esteem or decreased self-esteemPUBERTY: biological process that can have psychological consequences (early vs. late), but these consequences are based on society�s views Ex. girls going through early puberty: good in certain societies (earlier reproducability) bad in others (bullied); can lead to increased self-esteem or decreased self-esteem

19. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES how do theories help? Explaining behaviors and why they happen Allow for predictions of what will happen at different stages of development Abnormal development: perhaps by understanding what happens with normal development, we can help children going through abnormal development (ie. learning disablities, etc.)how do theories help? Explaining behaviors and why they happen Allow for predictions of what will happen at different stages of development Abnormal development: perhaps by understanding what happens with normal development, we can help children going through abnormal development (ie. learning disablities, etc.)

20. THEORIES Psychodynamic Theory Learning Theory Cognitive-Developmental Theory Ecological and Systems Approach Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization, and Life Course Perspective

21. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY internal motives and drives that are largely unconscious nature or nurture?: INSTINCTIVE, but�.. stage theories Freud (1856-1939) Father of psychology Erikson (1902-1994) Psychosocial theory behavior is driven by unconscious and internal motives and drives Shape behavior, personality, thought First theories of behavior and development Freud: father of psychology; first theories of behavioural development Erikson: one of first stage theories; resolving conflicts at different agesbehavior is driven by unconscious and internal motives and drives Shape behavior, personality, thought First theories of behavior and development Freud: father of psychology; first theories of behavioural development Erikson: one of first stage theories; resolving conflicts at different ages

22. SIGMUND FREUD Most famous and influential founder of scientific psychology the Freudian slip and Dream Analysis Psychoanalysis has been isolated from scientific psychology pseudoscience Based on �reliable observations� case studies Freud was an MD Freudian slip: hidden thoughts accidental are said analysed dreams for hidden motives: DOES THIS WORK? Ex. teeth falling out or loose: being aware of going through some form of transition, similar to that from childhood to maturity, or from maturity to old age and helplessness Ex. earthquake: alerts to an inner insecurity that we must deal with before it overwhelms us (great inner change and growth taking place that could cause upheaval) Other theories of dreams: random images of what you�re spending a lot of time thinking aboutFreud was an MD Freudian slip: hidden thoughts accidental are said analysed dreams for hidden motives: DOES THIS WORK? Ex. teeth falling out or loose: being aware of going through some form of transition, similar to that from childhood to maturity, or from maturity to old age and helplessness Ex. earthquake: alerts to an inner insecurity that we must deal with before it overwhelms us (great inner change and growth taking place that could cause upheaval) Other theories of dreams: random images of what you�re spending a lot of time thinking about

23. Con�t�. Psychology through physiology clinical neurology Importance of early experience conflict resolution for normal development Central to theory was �sex instinct� neither species nor cultural specific one of the biological needs key role in formation of neuroses ego, id, superego By far most common neural disorder of his time: hysteria (physical symptom with psychological cause), nowadays called dissociative disorder Hysteria is the result of a traumatic experience that cannot be integrated into person�s understanding Three distinct mental systems Resolving needs: hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, and sex Id: innate, irrational, and gratification oriented (old systematic conception of the unconscious) - biological basis of the mind, source of all motives, ultimate engine of behavior - desires that usually remain hidden 2. Ego: learned, rational, reality-oriented; conciousness ply the preconscious - relates organism to reality; searches for objects to satisfy wishes of id 3. Superego: moralistically irrational (the censor)By far most common neural disorder of his time: hysteria (physical symptom with psychological cause), nowadays called dissociative disorder Hysteria is the result of a traumatic experience that cannot be integrated into person�s understanding Three distinct mental systems Resolving needs: hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, and sex Id: innate, irrational, and gratification oriented (old systematic conception of the unconscious) - biological basis of the mind, source of all motives, ultimate engine of behavior - desires that usually remain hidden 2. Ego: learned, rational, reality-oriented; conciousness ply the preconscious - relates organism to reality; searches for objects to satisfy wishes of id 3. Superego: moralistically irrational (the censor)

24. ERIK ERIKSON stages of INTERNAL and EXTERNAL demands based on epigenetic principle: critical periods perhaps based on his own experience: mother raised him alone until age 3 then remarried; did not know biological father; jewish, but also very scandinavian looking (blond and blue eyes); did not fit into either community; ISSUES OF IDENTITY Learned psychoanalytic theory: actually analyzed by freud�s daughter Accepted Freud�s theory as basically correct, but introduced influence of society and culture; not much emphasis on instincts perhaps based on his own experience: mother raised him alone until age 3 then remarried; did not know biological father; jewish, but also very scandinavian looking (blond and blue eyes); did not fit into either community; ISSUES OF IDENTITY Learned psychoanalytic theory: actually analyzed by freud�s daughter Accepted Freud�s theory as basically correct, but introduced influence of society and culture; not much emphasis on instincts

25. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Identity Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair each stage involves certain developmental tasks Ex. trust vs. mistrust: want some trust and some mistrust each stage has optimal time period; no use rushing children into adulthood, nor can we slow pace of development If conflict is successfully resolved: we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which helps with rest of stages of life If conflict is not resolved: may develop maladaptations and malignancies as well as endanger all future development Malignancy: too little positive and too much negative aspect of task Maladaptations: too much positive and too little negativeeach stage involves certain developmental tasks Ex. trust vs. mistrust: want some trust and some mistrust each stage has optimal time period; no use rushing children into adulthood, nor can we slow pace of development If conflict is successfully resolved: we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which helps with rest of stages of life If conflict is not resolved: may develop maladaptations and malignancies as well as endanger all future development Malignancy: too little positive and too much negative aspect of task Maladaptations: too much positive and too little negative

26. LEARNING THEORY how learning influences behaviors emphasizes role of experience nature or nurture?: IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT Skinner (1904-1990) Behaviourism Bandura (1925) Social Learning Theory not big role of genetics for these theories: just not interested in genetics not big role of genetics for these theories: just not interested in genetics

27. B.F. SKINNER Child�s mind is a blank slate at birth Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: increasing behavior Positive vs. Negative Punishment: decreasing behavior Positive vs. Negative Skinner�s Pigeons Skinner Box Skinner�s Daughter Behaviorism: John Watson (1878-1958): first to purpose that child is blank state on which experience works (Locke�s idea) Radical behaviourism: complete rejection of the entire intellectual psychological tradition; behavior completely controlled by environment: stimulus = response concept of black box: mental states are irrelevant to behavior Like Darwin�s concepts: organism is always producing variants of behavior and some lead to favourable consequences (ie. reinforcing) and so are later repeated Trained pigeons during WWII to peck at a projected image of the target that the missile they were imprisoned in was to seek out Pecking operated controls on the missile so that it followed its course until it struck the target Behaviorism: John Watson (1878-1958): first to purpose that child is blank state on which experience works (Locke�s idea) Radical behaviourism: complete rejection of the entire intellectual psychological tradition; behavior completely controlled by environment: stimulus = response concept of black box: mental states are irrelevant to behavior Like Darwin�s concepts: organism is always producing variants of behavior and some lead to favourable consequences (ie. reinforcing) and so are later repeated Trained pigeons during WWII to peck at a projected image of the target that the missile they were imprisoned in was to seek out Pecking operated controls on the missile so that it followed its course until it struck the target

28. ALBERT BANDURA Sometimes learn with reinforcement and/or punishment watching others imitation or observational learning: ex. Bobo doll experiment cognitive theory of development self-efficacy theory most relevant to criminology Bandura believed that aggression was learned through process of behavior modelling How would he feel about what we see on TV? Learn greatly from actions of parents Four components that are learned when exposed to models: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation Environmental influences are very important Ex. individuals who live in high crime areas Observational learning: simply watching others around them (imitation) More often imitation people thought to be successful/popular; more often imitate behaviors that are rewarded rather than punished Social cognitive theory: complex view of reward, punishment, and imitiation; people actively try to undestand what goes on in the world Self-efficacy: argues that experience gives people a sense of self; refers to people�s beliefs about their own abilities and talentstheory most relevant to criminology Bandura believed that aggression was learned through process of behavior modelling How would he feel about what we see on TV? Learn greatly from actions of parents Four components that are learned when exposed to models: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation Environmental influences are very important Ex. individuals who live in high crime areas Observational learning: simply watching others around them (imitation) More often imitation people thought to be successful/popular; more often imitate behaviors that are rewarded rather than punished Social cognitive theory: complex view of reward, punishment, and imitiation; people actively try to undestand what goes on in the world Self-efficacy: argues that experience gives people a sense of self; refers to people�s beliefs about their own abilities and talents

29. COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY thought process and construction of knowledge nature vs. nurture?: INTERACTION WITH ENVIRONMENT Stage theories Piaget (1896-1980): cognitive development Kohlberg (1927-1987): moral development Information-processing theories

30. JEAN PIAGET how we construct knowledge over time making sense of the world Criticisms Critical points of development: Sensorimotor Preoperational thought Concrete Operational thought Formal Operational thought based on watching his own children grow up Construction of knowledge over time: understanding social and physical world To expand knowledge of world: children act like scientists Stages of development: must go through one stage to progress to next stage Critical periods of development Problems: universality? Underestimated abilities of children? Can be at different stages for different aspects of knowledgebased on watching his own children grow up Construction of knowledge over time: understanding social and physical world To expand knowledge of world: children act like scientists Stages of development: must go through one stage to progress to next stage Critical periods of development Problems: universality? Underestimated abilities of children? Can be at different stages for different aspects of knowledge

31. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG Stages of thinking of moral dilemmas correspond with Piaget�s stages Stages of moral development: Preconventional stage: Punishment and Reward Conventional stage: Social Norms Postconventional stage: Moral Codes a stage theory of resolving moral conflicts Tying maturation and experience together Based on Piaget�s theory: somewhat extension of theoriesa stage theory of resolving moral conflicts Tying maturation and experience together Based on Piaget�s theory: somewhat extension of theories

32. STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Preconventional stage: Punishment and Reward 1. Obedience to authority 2. Future favours Conventional stage: Social Norms 3. Other�s expectations 4. Rules to maintain social order Postconventional stage: Moral Codes 5. Adhere to social contract when valid 6. Personal moral system based on abstract principles people do not always make moral decisions at same level; can be situational specific Not everyone reaches the last stages of this developmentpeople do not always make moral decisions at same level; can be situational specific Not everyone reaches the last stages of this development

33. INFORMATION-PROCESSING not a stage theory how computers process information Hardware and Software Cognitive structures in the brain Cognitive process to analyze information hardware: disk drives, random-access memory, and central processing unit Software: programs we use Ex. learning: encode information, store it in memory, and retrieve during test Explaining developmental processes: improvement in computers from years ago; better hardware, more sophisticated software Hardware: increased neural structures and efficiency Software: better learning strategies Mental deterioration with age?hardware: disk drives, random-access memory, and central processing unit Software: programs we use Ex. learning: encode information, store it in memory, and retrieve during test Explaining developmental processes: improvement in computers from years ago; better hardware, more sophisticated software Hardware: increased neural structures and efficiency Software: better learning strategies Mental deterioration with age?

34. ECOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMS Complexities of the environment nature vs. nurture?: ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT, but� Bronfenbrenner (1917) different systems within the environment Competence-Environmental Press Theory interaction of individual with environment focus on role of environment Gets name from branch of biology: relation of living things to environment and to one another Aspects of development can be isolated from each other focus on role of environment Gets name from branch of biology: relation of living things to environment and to one another Aspects of development can be isolated from each other

35. URIE BRONFENBRENNER Four levels of environment Microsystem: immediate environment Mesosystem: many microsystems ex. home and work Exosystem: social settings not experienced directly Macrosystem: culture person is embedded in several complex and interactive systems person is embedded in several complex and interactive systems

36. COMPETENCE-ENVIRONMENTAL PRESS Adapt to environment based on competency and ability nature or nurture?: BIT OF BOTH? Demands of environment create behavior through abilities of individual less complex than bronfenbrenner�s theory Initially proposed to show how older adults function in environment, but can be used for all ages How well people adapt to changes in environment based on their competency or abilities Environmental press: best match or best fit leading to adaptation could be extended across the life span Ex. how good social skills are will determine acceptance into social groups Leaving out role of genetics: can this explain everything? DO THESE ENVIRONMENTAL THEORIES ADEQUATELY EXPLAIN DEVELOPMENT? less complex than bronfenbrenner�s theory Initially proposed to show how older adults function in environment, but can be used for all ages How well people adapt to changes in environment based on their competency or abilities Environmental press: best match or best fit leading to adaptation could be extended across the life span Ex. how good social skills are will determine acceptance into social groups Leaving out role of genetics: can this explain everything? DO THESE ENVIRONMENTAL THEORIES ADEQUATELY EXPLAIN DEVELOPMENT?

37. OVERVIEW THEORIES LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE multiply determined not one framework SELECTIVE-OPTIMIZATION three processes form a system that regulates development Selection, Optimization, and Compensation LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE various generations and historical context criticisms of developmental theories: tend to ignore adult development; MAYBE BECAUSE CHILDREN�S DEVELOPMENT IS MUCH MORE OBVIOUS? Adulthood: reaching plateau of abilities? Can also study decline of abilities in old age LSP: Aging if lifelong process; no single period can be understood without looking at what came before Affected by environment, society, and historical change New patterns of development can cause social change 2 phases: early phase (childhood and adolescence) and later phase (young adulthood; middle age, old age) Early phase: age-related changes; physical size and abilities; these changes also occur in later stages, but more slowly; as long as environments and biology change, people much changecriticisms of developmental theories: tend to ignore adult development; MAYBE BECAUSE CHILDREN�S DEVELOPMENT IS MUCH MORE OBVIOUS? Adulthood: reaching plateau of abilities? Can also study decline of abilities in old age LSP: Aging if lifelong process; no single period can be understood without looking at what came before Affected by environment, society, and historical change New patterns of development can cause social change 2 phases: early phase (childhood and adolescence) and later phase (young adulthood; middle age, old age) Early phase: age-related changes; physical size and abilities; these changes also occur in later stages, but more slowly; as long as environments and biology change, people much change

38. LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE Aging is a lifelong process always developing understand stage of developed from what�s happened and what�s to come Social, historical, and environmental change 2 phases: Early phase: childhood and adolescence Later phase: young adulthood, middle age, and old age LSP: Aging if lifelong process; no single period can be understood without looking at what came before Affected by environment, society, and historical change New patterns of development can cause social change 2 phases: early phase (childhood and adolescence) and later phase (young adulthood; middle age, old age) Early phase: age-related changes; physical size and abilities; these changes also occur in later stages, but more slowly; as long as environments and biology change, people much change LSP: Aging if lifelong process; no single period can be understood without looking at what came before Affected by environment, society, and historical change New patterns of development can cause social change 2 phases: early phase (childhood and adolescence) and later phase (young adulthood; middle age, old age) Early phase: age-related changes; physical size and abilities; these changes also occur in later stages, but more slowly; as long as environments and biology change, people much change

39. Con�t�. 4 features of life-span perspective: Multidirectionality Plasticity Historical Context Multiple Causation multidirectionality: development involves both growth and decline; when growth in one area, may decline in others and at different rates Plasticity: one�s capacity is not predetermined or carved in stone; many skills can be learned or improved with practice, even later in life Historical context: develop in particular set of circumstances determine by historical time Multiple causation: how we develop from biology, psychology, sociology, and life-cycle forces multidirectionality: development involves both growth and decline; when growth in one area, may decline in others and at different rates Plasticity: one�s capacity is not predetermined or carved in stone; many skills can be learned or improved with practice, even later in life Historical context: develop in particular set of circumstances determine by historical time Multiple causation: how we develop from biology, psychology, sociology, and life-cycle forces

40. SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION Selection: choose goals, life domains, and life tasks Optimization and Compensation: maintaining and enhancing goals selecting from a range of possibilities Elective selection Loss-based selection to deal with changes that occur with age These three processes form a system of behavioral action and regulate development and aging Elective selection: when one chooses to reduce one�s involvement to fewer domains as a result of new demands or tasks Loss-based selection: reduced involvement happens as a result of anticipated losses in personal or environmental resources Compensation: person can no longer function well in a particular domain because the necessary survivial skills have been lost or have fallen below the level necessary for adequate functioning; search for alternative ways to reach goal; ex. learning new skill Differs from selection in that no changing of goals, but changing of strategy to deal with changes that occur with age These three processes form a system of behavioral action and regulate development and aging Elective selection: when one chooses to reduce one�s involvement to fewer domains as a result of new demands or tasks Loss-based selection: reduced involvement happens as a result of anticipated losses in personal or environmental resources Compensation: person can no longer function well in a particular domain because the necessary survivial skills have been lost or have fallen below the level necessary for adequate functioning; search for alternative ways to reach goal; ex. learning new skill Differs from selection in that no changing of goals, but changing of strategy

41. Con�t�. Optimization: minimize loss and maximize gain best match between resources and goals Optimization: minimization of losses and maximization of goals; best possible match between resources and desired goals; cannot achieve optimization in everything, development becomes a dynamic balancing act between selecting right goals and compensating when possible to help maximize odds of achieving themOptimization: minimization of losses and maximization of goals; best possible match between resources and desired goals; cannot achieve optimization in everything, development becomes a dynamic balancing act between selecting right goals and compensating when possible to help maximize odds of achieving them

42. LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE Several key transitions to life Ex. finishing school, marriage, getting a job Happen at different times for different people How an individual�s life relates to historical events Individual�s transitions with familial transitions Impact of earlier life events on later life events how various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts Time and sequence of events: ex. getting job, having family in context of historical change (ex. war; economic change) Ex. getting married during depression: delayed, so later marriages Synchronization of individual transitions with collective familial ones Impact of earlier life events, as shaped by historical events, on subsequent ones (ex. war; military draft, later career) Major life transitions can occur at many different ages across people and generations (ex. marriage: now later due to career demands, etc. decision to have children: dependent on career and education)how various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts Time and sequence of events: ex. getting job, having family in context of historical change (ex. war; economic change) Ex. getting married during depression: delayed, so later marriages Synchronization of individual transitions with collective familial ones Impact of earlier life events, as shaped by historical events, on subsequent ones (ex. war; military draft, later career) Major life transitions can occur at many different ages across people and generations (ex. marriage: now later due to career demands, etc. decision to have children: dependent on career and education)

43. COMPARISON OF THEORIES Looking at different aspects of development? Interaction between theories? Replacing theories? Stage theories vs. Learning Theories

44. INTERACTION WITH PEERS Psychodynamic Theory Learning Theory Cognitive-Developmental Theory Ecological and Systems Approach Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization, and Life Course Perspective

45. INTERACTION WITH PEERS Psychodynamic Theory: early stage resolutions Learning Theory: what others do and/or rewards Cognitive-Developmental Theory: stages Ecological and Systems Approach: environment Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization, and Life Course Perspective: many aspects psychodynamic: ex. Erikson�s trust vs. mistrust Learning theory: imitation of others Cognitive: piaget�s theories Ecological: changes in environment LSP, SO, LCP: many aspects; historical change, society, culture, etc.psychodynamic: ex. Erikson�s trust vs. mistrust Learning theory: imitation of others Cognitive: piaget�s theories Ecological: changes in environment LSP, SO, LCP: many aspects; historical change, society, culture, etc.

46. DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH STRATEGIES How do we study development? Got a taste when we looked at various theories, but now some specifics Older theories (Freud, Piaget, etc.) not based on rigorous testing now done in order for theories to be accepted now: reviewed by other scientists; unbiased testing How do we study development? Got a taste when we looked at various theories, but now some specifics Older theories (Freud, Piaget, etc.) not based on rigorous testing now done in order for theories to be accepted now: reviewed by other scientists; unbiased testing

47. MEASUREMENT Systemic observation: observing without disturbing Naturalistic observation: spontaneous behavior in natural environment Structure observation: environment is likely to elicit behavior of interest Problems: people aware of being observed problems with naturalistic observations: too many uncontrollable factors Ex. why do children play with same-sex peers Could watch children at play in kindergarten Many factors: background of children, teacher�s attitude, what they are learning in school, etc. What if fire alarm goes off? Some children are absent from school Problems with structure observation: artificial setting, so may elicit behaviors that would not be seen in naturalistic setting Ex. doing what researcher wants: ex. in set-up play situation, may play with children they think researcher wants them to play with NOVEL FOODS STUDYproblems with naturalistic observations: too many uncontrollable factors Ex. why do children play with same-sex peers Could watch children at play in kindergarten Many factors: background of children, teacher�s attitude, what they are learning in school, etc. What if fire alarm goes off? Some children are absent from school Problems with structure observation: artificial setting, so may elicit behaviors that would not be seen in naturalistic setting Ex. doing what researcher wants: ex. in set-up play situation, may play with children they think researcher wants them to play with NOVEL FOODS STUDY

48. Con�t� Sampling behavior with tasks: when cannot observe a behavior directly very convenient Is it a valid approach? Does it actually tell us what we want to know? Subjects perform differently when being tested than when in natural setting like taking a test Very convenient Same problems with structured observation Also, pressure of test situationlike taking a test Very convenient Same problems with structured observation Also, pressure of test situation

49. Con�t�. Self reports answers to questions regarding behavior of interest questionnaire or interview answers can be inaccurate not remembering accurately wanting to give �correct� answer lying on tests Memory problemslying on tests Memory problems

50. Con�t�. Measurements used must be: Reliable consistent index of characteristic always measures same characteristic Valid measuring what is wanted same results as other tests measuring the same characteristic

51. RESEARCH DESIGNS Correlational Studies Relations between variables positive and negative relationships Correlation coefficient: strength and direction of relation BUT�. influence of other variables example: height relating to weight Another example: Survey on amount of coffee and work that gets done: Positive correlation between about of coffee consumed and amount of work completed Does increase in coffee cause increase in work? No because could be due to increased work causes people to drink more coffee A faster metabolism causes increased coffee consumption and increased workAnother example: Survey on amount of coffee and work that gets done: Positive correlation between about of coffee consumed and amount of work completed Does increase in coffee cause increase in work? No because could be due to increased work causes people to drink more coffee A faster metabolism causes increased coffee consumption and increased work

52. Con�t�. Experimental Studies manipulating factors to give cause and effect Independent variable: manipulated Dependent variable: measured (�depends on�) random assignment to groups usually not in a natural setting ex. Ritalin decreases attention deficits Back to coffee example: How would we find out if increased coffee consumption increased work rate?Back to coffee example: How would we find out if increased coffee consumption increased work rate?

53. DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS Longitudinal Studies same person tested over various ages stability of behaviour high subject drop out rate takes a long time to complete study using same test multiple times ex. changes in extroversion over lifespan

54. Con�t�. Cross-Sectional Studies testing people in different age groups more convenient than longitudinal studies cohort effects: people within an age group did not necessarily experience the same events as people at a younger age Ex. historical events, different school curriculums, etc. - ex. ability to solve puzzle

55. Con�t�. Sequential Studies Cross-sectional and Longitudinal approach starts with one than adds the other address limitations of other two designs Isolate cohort effects Isolate drop-out effects but still very expensive

56. RESEARCH ETHICS Minimize risks to participants Describe research to potential participants Avoid deception If must be deceived: provide explanation as soon as possible Results should be anonymous and confidential

57. SCIENTIFIC METHOD Question Hypothesis Testing/Data Collection Theory Law

58. SCIENTIFIC METHOD Question: is height related to weight? Hypothesis: educated guess Testing/Data Collection: question must be testable Theory: based on collected data Law: a theory that is always true

59. COMMUNICATING RESULTS Results written as paper/article to be submitted to journal must report methods and data accurately so that other researchers would be able to reproduce experiment Journals are specialized to report certain types of research Ex. aging, neurobiology, etc.

60. APPLYING RESULTS Does any of this research help us? Is any of this research applicable? Can have effects on policymaking Importance of Day Care Teacher-Student Ratios in Classroom

61. CONCLUSION

62. CONCLUSION Several approaches to studying development: Some are independent of one another and some overlap Remember as we go through course about these different approaches Research strategies Importance of well-done research