LCD720 – 02/04/09

1. LCD720 – 02/04/09 Research on teaching and learning pronunciation

2. Announcements • New classroom: RA 202

3. Reflection • Exercise 2, p. 32/33: Rank order the ESL learners based on: • Age • Amount of exposure • Sociocultural factors • Affective factors, incl. motivation • Other factors

4. A short history of L2 and pronunciation research and theories • L2 research (in general) • Contrastive Analysis • Error Analysis • Interlanguage research • Pronunciation research • Markedness theory • Language universals • Information processing theory

5. 1. Contrastive analysis • Where L1 and L2 are the same: easy to learn • Where L1 and L2 are different: difficult • For example: • L1 has /l/ and /r/, L2 has /l/ and /r/: easy to learn • L1 has /l/ but not /r/, L2 has /l/ and /r/: difficult to learn /r/ • Negative transfer from L1 plays a role in • general segmental features (like aspiration), and • suprasegmental features (like intonation and rhythm) • Problem: CA doesn’t always make the correct predictions (e.g., directionality)

6. 2. Error analysis and avoidance • In addition to contrastive analysis: Error Analysis • Which predictions are borne out? How difficult are these problems? • Error analysis looks at: • Interlingual errors (L1 interference) • Intralingual errors (e.g., overgeneralization) • Developmental errors (similar to L1 acquisition) • Problems: • EA focuses on what is wrong, not what is right • EA ignores avoidance (e.g., difficult words)

7. 3. Interlanguage • Interlanguage: The rule-governed and systematic second language knowledge of learners • Development of interlanguage is determined by • L1 • L2 • Universals • Communication strategies (e.g., better performance in more formal situations)

8. 4. Markedness theory • In any pair of sounds, one is more ‘basic’, neutral, frequent, earlier acquired, etc. than the other • One member of the pair is unmarked • Example • English allows /p, t, k/ and /b, d, g/ in word-final position • But: German allows only /p, t, k/ in word-final position • So: English is more marked than German (in this respect)

9. 4. Markedness theory • Markedness can predict directionality: • Word-final /b, d, g/ in English (marked) are more difficult to pronounce for L1 German speakers • Word-final /p, t, k/ in German (unmarked) is easier to pronounce for L1 English speakers • Contrastive analysis does not make such predictions about directionality

10. 4. Markedness theory • /ŋ/ can occur in syllable-final position in English (sing) • /ŋ/ can occur in syllable-final and syllable-initial position in Vietnamese (ngang) • Which language is more marked (with respect to /ŋ/)? • Which learner has more difficulty? • English speaker learning Vietnamese, or • Vietnamese speaker learning English

11. 5. Language universals • Language universals: properties all languages have in common • Principles and parameters (Chomsky) • Implicational universals • Examples of universals • All languages have consonants and vowels • Consonants contrast in manner, voicing, etc.

12. 5. Language universals Fricatives are more marked than nasals. Stops are unmarked. • Implicational hierarchies: stops > nasals > fricatives • Languages that have nasals also have stops • Languages that have fricatives also have nasals and stops • Predictions for acquisition • Stops are acquired before nasals; nasals are acquired before fricatives • Initially, fricatives are replaced by stops

13. 5. Language universals • Determine whether and how the following universals may affect ESL pronunciation teaching • Stops > fricatives > affricates • If a language has voiced obstruent phonemes (/b, d, g/), it will also have voiceless obstruent phonemes (/p, t, k/). • Front vowel phonemes are generally unrounded, while non-low back vowel phonemes are generally rounded. • What does this imply for rounded front vowels?

14. 6. Information processing theory: Schemata • Tendency to interpret new information in terms of existing knowledge structures: schemata • E.g., schema of going to a restaurant • Schemata also influence processing of phonology: • A L1 Spanish speaker may ‘hear’ eski instead of ski, because that what s/he expects to hear

15. 6. Information processing theoryAutomatic vs. controlled • Automatic vs. controlled processing • Controlled processing requires attention and awareness • Automatic processing is not controlled or inhibited by other processes • Cf. learning to drive a car with manual transmission • With controlled processing you have to think a lot; it’s easy to make a mistake, like switching the order of steps or forgetting a step (e.g., use the clutch) • With automatic processing you don’t have to think; however, it’s difficult to change automatic behavior

16. 6. Information processing theory:Modes of learning • Three modes of learning 1. Accretion (or accommodation): adding new information 2. Restructuring: changing the system based on existing patterns 3. Tuning: further modify the system • Example: L1 Portuguese, L2 English • Portuguese has /i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/ • Accretion: add /ɪ, æ, ʊ, ʌ/ • Restructure: /i, e, u/ may shift position • Fine-tuning: approaching native pronunciation

17. New directions • So far: Focus on individual sounds (vowels, consonants) • More recent research: • Intonation • Rhythm • Connected speech • Voice quality • We’ll discuss these in more detail later

18. Intonation • American English has a three tone system of intonation contours • Other languages, like Spanish, may have only two • To the ear of a NAE speaker, this sounds uninterested and bored NAE speaker This is a book Japanese speaker        

19. Rhythm • Stressed syllables are longer than unstressed syllables • This is a common problem for ESL learners • It is possible to learn to produce the appropriate rhythm, but it may take extensive practice • E.g., scaffolding from single items, to phrases, to longer stretches of speech

20. Connected speech • Sounds are affected by other sounds that come before or after them, e.g., • Flapping rule (e.g., water) • Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables • Consonant cluster simplification (e.g., sixth)

21. Voice quality • Pitch and loudness • Spanish and Japanese speakers tend to speak with higher pitch and lower volume than Americans • Language specific and sociocultural factors

22. Derwing & Munro (2005) • Questions? • Issues in research on pronunciation teaching that interest you • How would they affect your teaching practices? • …?

23. Next week • Read Chapter 3 (The consonant system) • Exercises 2 (p. 30), 1 (p. 31) • Bring a hand mirror