Mobilization

1. Mobilization • Home by Christmas! • No major war in 50 years • Nationalism It's a long way to Tipperary, It's a long way to go; It's a long way to Tipperary, To the sweetest girl I know! Goodbye, Piccadilly, Farewell, Leicester Square, It's a long, long way to Tipperary, But my heart's right there!

2. The Western Front: A “War of Attrition”

3. German Invasion • August 3, 1914: 1.5 million German troops invaded Belgium & northern France • 160,000 strong British Expeditionary Force embarked for northern France • Germany conquered Belgium by August 20 • French transferred troops to their left wing • Moltke diverted troops from the German right wing to Russia • French and British armies conducted an orderly retreat, inflicting heavy casualties

4. First Battle of the Marne • German army turned to the east of Paris • Thousands of reservists were moved to the front by 600 Paris taxis • German attack stalled near the River Marne, 25 miles from Paris, in early September • French and British launched a counter-attack (Sep 6-12) • Germans were forced to retreat to the River Aisne • General Moltke suffered and breakdown and was fired

5. First Battle of Ypres • October/November, 1914: German army tried to outflank the Allies in western Belgium • BEF mounted brave resistance • Used many Indian troops • Germany flanking maneuver was stopped • By Christmas the front stabilized • Casualties in 1914 • France: 995,000 • Germany: 667,000 • Britain: 96,000

6. Battle of the Somme –1916 • British offensive in northern France • 60,000 British casualties in one day • Over 1,150,000 killed in 5 months • Allies advanced only 6 miles

7. New Practices & Technologies

8. Machine Gun • Could fire 600 rounds of ammo per minute • Both sides used artillery and howitzers to fire shrapnel • French army switched to a more camouflaged uniform • Each soldier carried about 30 kg of equipment • All these factors made defense much more effective than offense

9. Poison Gas • New German Chief of Staff: Falkenhayn • Germany first used poison gas (chlorine) in April 1915 • Inflicted 70,000 casualties in a few days • Both sides later used phosgene and mustard gas • Both sides quickly issued respirators • Poison gas proved ineffective in the long run

10. Other New Weapons • 1914: all armies began to use airplanes for reconnaisance • 1915: both sides began mounting machine guns • 1916: planes began to drop bombs • Both armies began to construct tunnels under enemy trenches and blow them up • Tanks were invented by the British in 1916 • Early tanks were slow and prone to breakdowns • Didn’t become effective until 1918

11. TheEasternFront

12. Battle of TanenburgAugust 1914 • August 1914: Russia invades eastern Prussia • 2 divisions are transferred from the Western Front to Prussia • Smaller German army used superior technology and intelligence to defeat a larger Russian army • Superior generalship of Ludendorff • 90,000 Russians surrendered • Thousands of soldiers flee in panic, leaving all equipment behind • Russian general commits suicide

13. Russia vs. Austria • August 1914: Austria invades Russia but is defeated by superior numbers • Fall 1914: Russia invades 150 miles into Austria • 1915: Germany & Austria attack Russia and win decisively • Russians suffer a shortage of guns, ammo and boots • 1916 Brusilov Offensive: Russians attacked Austrian army and pushed them out of Russia • Victory was squandered by the timidity of other Russian generals

14. Russia’s Collapse (1917) • Soldiers became disillusioned about the war and desertion rose • Food shortages became severe in 1917 • Government banned sale of vodka • February 1917: citizens of Petrograd revolted against the govt and the army refused to stop them • March: Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate and a Provisional Government was established • June: Russian offensive failed miserably and major retreat began • December: signed armistice with Germany and Austria

15. The Gallipoli Disaster, 1915 • British, French, Australian, and New Zealand (Anzacs) force tried to knock Turkey out of the war by invading near Istanbul • Lost due to poor planning, difficult terrain, and courageous leadership of Mustapha Kemal • Allies eventually retreated • First Sea Lord Winston Churchill was forced to resign

16. The Desert War • 1915: Turks attacked British & Indian troops in Iraq but were ultimately repelled • 1916: British attack Turks in Palestine • Captain TE Lawrence organizes Arab guerilla warfare against Turkey • Arabs are promised independence • Balfour Declaration • 1917: Britain captures Palestine and Jerusalem

17. Italian Front • 1915: Italy joins the Entente in hopes to gain territory from Austria • 1915-16: Italy repeatedly attacks Austrian positions in the Dolomite Mountains • Gain very little territory but lose many men • Poor leadership and equipment • 1917: Austria launched major offensive and achieved a crushing victory at Caporetto • 250,000 Italian soldiers surrender • Britain and France have to send troops to help defend Italy

18. Total War

19. Allied Blockade • Allied navies far outnumbered those of the Central Powers • However, Britain was very vulnerable due to its large empire, vital trade, and troop transport • Mines and submarines equalized the balance • British navy blockaded German ports • This caused cold, hunger and disease in Germany and Austria • This lead to crumbling morale and bread riots by 1918

20. The Naval War • 1914: isolated German ships sunk many British naval and merchant ships • 1915: stalemate • Battle of Jutland (1916) • German navy attacked British navy in North Sea • Britain lost 14 ships and Germany 11 • British naval blockade continued

21. Submarine Warfare • German U-boats were bigger and more powerful than British subs • 1915: they began to torpedo all merchant shipping trading with Britain • This angered neutral countries like the US • Lusitania • 1917: Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare • Allies gradually introduced convoys to protect trade • Caused US to join war in April, 1917

22. Death & Devastation Belgian refugees prepare to board ships to Britain (1914) • Malnutrition and disease caused mortality rates to jump • 250,000 Belgian refugees fled to Britain • In war zones civilians often fled • Bombing by zeppelin • Occupied territories • Ban on news • Meager rations • Billeting of enemy soldiers • Confiscation of property • Forced labor • Concentration camps • Summary execution

23. France • Georges Clemenceau became Prime Minister of France in 1917 • 76 years old • Brilliant journalist • Frequently visited the trenches • Rousing speeches preaching vengeance • Recruited 76% of adult males into army • Govt introduced income taxes • Govt borrowed and printed money leading to high inflation

24. Britain • David Lloyd George became Prime Minister in 1916 • Energetic and popular • Disagreed with General Haig • Began conscription in 1916 • Imposed regulations on alcohol consumption • Food rationing began in 1918 • Govt began welfare programs to ease the burden

25. Germany • Chancellor Bethmann usually agreed to all military demands • Paul von Hindenburg (Supreme Command) and Erich Ludendorff (Commander-in-Chief) established a kind of military dictatorship • Reichstag passed a peace resolution in 1917 • The Kaiser became increasingly irrelevant • Entire economy was devoted to the war effort

26. Propaganda & Pacifism • Censorship • to suppress undesirable messages • to justify the nation’s cause • Newspapers, leaflets, postcards, beer mugs, board games, posters • Actors, teachers and clergy were asked to encourage patriotism • Pacifist groups in Britain and the US campaigned for military exemption • Conscientious objectors

27. The Final Stages

28. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk • November 1917: Bolshevik Revolution brought Lenin to power in Russia • Immediately started negotiating peace with Germany • Russian army was crumbling and Lenin had to accept a “robber peace” • March 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk • Lost Baltic provinces • Russia to pay 5 billion gold rubles • Surrendered virtually all of western Russia to German control • Creates Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine • Russia ¼ of population and industry, and 9/10 of its coal mines

29. American Entry • February-March 1917: unrestricted submarine warfare targets hundreds of US ships • April 1917: President Wilson persuaded Congress to declare war on Germany • President Wilson declared that “The world must be made safe for democracy.” • Americans rushed to enlist in the military and support for the Allies soared • General John Pershing was instructed to maintain separate units of American soldiers

30. America Prepares for War • US Army was small, poorly equipped and inexperienced • Air Force had only 1 squadron • Navy was large and immediately effective • US industry quickly converted to war production • Mobilization was slow • 4 million soldiers by March 1918 • Only 31,000 had arrived in France • By June 1918, 10,000 American soldiers were arriving per day • US soldiers possessed fresh energy, confidence and hope • Nicknamed Yankees & Doughboys

31. Playing the Last Card • In early 1918 Germany possessed a brief superiority of numbers • Ludendorff Offensive • Included 3 separate surprise attacks in March-May 1918 • All 3 made impressive initial gains but were eventually contained by stiff defense • Allies held out because of more equipment and arrival of US forces in May • 900,000 German deaths in 6 months

32. Allied Counter-Offensive • Allied improvements • Integrated command structure • Improved morale • Better coordination with radio, tanks, artillery and airpower • August-September • Allies launched short surprise attacks all along the line • Gradually regained all lost territory • German morale quickly plummeted • Allies still suffered heavy casualties

33. The Final Days • September 25: Bulgaria signs an armistice • October: Yugoslavs, Poles, Czechs & Hungarians declare independence from Austria • October 3: Ludendorff asks Wilson for peace terms but rejects them • October 26: Ludendorff resigns and flees to Sweden • October 27: German sailors at Kiel mutiny • October 31: Turkey signs an armistice • November 3: Austria signs an armistice • November 9: Social Democrat Philip Scheidemann declares Germany a republic; Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates • November 11: armistice is agreed at 11am

34. Why did the Allies win? • Germany’s allies were weak. • Armies poorly equipped and lead • Plagued by ethnic divisions • German Revolution • Widespread mutiny and desertion in last months • Major worker strikes and marches in 1917-18 C. Superior resources of the Allies (w/o Russia; w/ US) • 2.7 x more manufacturing • 2.2 x more steel production • 3.3 x more machine guns • 4.3 x more trucks • 80 x more tanks D. Allied blockade • Caused major shortages of food, oil, steel and parts in German & Austria

35. World War I Casualties