Causes and Effects of Trade Tensions

1. Causes and Effectsof Trade Tensions Andrew K. Rose NUS-Business Berkeley-Haas, ABFER, CEPR and NBER

2. Multilateral Trade Weakening • Before we become concerned, we should try to understand causes • First, some long run causes Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

3. Declining Trade Growth: Long Run Causes • Not all barriers to trade are “artificial” impediments (protectionism) • Some are “natural” • Slowing Growth of Tradeables • Most trade is in goods (finished or not); productivity gains in secondary production have slowed over time (Gordon) • Demand shifts from goods to services as income rises • Especially true as populations age • Many services are hard to trade • Most services hard to liberalize/harmonize/regulate • Hence proliferation of RTAs … intrinsically hard to negotiate, getting tougher Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

4. Long Run Causes, continued • Stalled technological progress in transportation costs reduction • Few significant changes since containerization • Could be one real beneficiary of blockchain • Country composition • Small countries trade more than the large; countries just aren’t getting smaller anymore (they used to; dissolution of Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Sudan, … Alesina) • Hard to see any of these causes reversing themselves Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

5. Long Run Causes, concluded Three Notes • A striking long run omission: declining “artificial” trade barriers • Protectionism trended down from 1945 on … no more! • Not JUST Trump … Doha never completed … • Climate Change could also raise transport costs • Savings Glut from Germany, China, … • Global imbalances mean global trade tensions • Populist backlash could lower trade per se (US) • Lowers real interest rates, hence nominal interest rates • Thereby makes central banks less able to respond to negative shocks, greater financial instability • Hence rethinking of monetary framework by central banks • Moving to fixed exchange rates becomes even less plausible … a risk reducer Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

6. Short Run Causes of Trade Woes • Under-appreciated: absence of serious recent liberalization • Trade liberalization is like riding a bicycle (Bergsten) • Rise of US dollar (Gopinath) • US fiscal expansion; issuer of safe assets; European, Asian woes • When US $ appreciates, trade tends to shrink Rose G20: Trade Tension and Financial Stability

7. Dollar Appreciation: Big, Recent, Sustained Rose G20: Trade Tension and Financial Stability

8. Short Run Causes of Trade Woes, cntd • Explicit protectionism (duh!) • Policy-induced uncertainty, a consequence of protectionism: Trump • Exacerbated by lack of institutional support for rules-based nature system (WTO appellate judges) • Enduring since … What does victory in trade war consist in? Objective? US trade balance (given savings and investment)? Rose G20: Trade Tension and Financial Stability

9. Trade Policy Uncertainty: Dramatic, Recent Rose G20: Trade Tension and Financial Stability

10. This Uncertainty is Induced … and Costly • Lowers physical investment (hence growth slowdown) • Much evidence (Bloom, Davis, …) • This further lowers trade, since capital goods disproportionately traded; vicious cycle • Lowers firm investment in supply chains (make not buy) • General unraveling of efficient/complex international supply chains Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

11. Another Short Run Cause: Soft Power Erosion • Part of trade decline because of loss of ‘soft power’ • Hard power: ability to coerce via military and economic mass • Soft power: ability to co-opt via attraction • Key political figures, regimes extraordinarily unpopular abroad • “Soft Power and Exports”: a country’s exports rise when its leadership is approved by other countries • Standard gravity model of bilateral exports (year x importer/exporter FE, controls) • Panel of data from 2006 through 2017 • Annual Gallup survey:  people in up to 157 countries asked about approval of job performance of leadership of China, Germany, Russia, UK, USA • Strong, robust result: ceteris paribus, country’s exports are higher if its leadership is approved by the importer Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

12. Trump has Certainly Harmed US Soft Power Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

13. ‘Soft Power’ Promotes Exports • 1 pp increase in leadership approval raises exports by around 2/3% (statistically significant, robust) … and Trump (2017) is >20pp less popular than Obama (2016) • Key leaders (BoJo and the Donald) are very unpopular abroad • Symmetrically, loss/lack of soft power lowers exports Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

14. Summary: Causes of Trade Tension • Long Run • Slowing Growth of Tradeables, transition from Goods to Services • Stalled Technological Progress in Transport Costs • Stalled Liberalization, Savings Glut • Short Run • Protectionism • Rise of US $ • Policy-induced Uncertainty • Loss of Soft Power • All likely to be persistent Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

15. Effects of Trade Tensions on Financial Stability Most Visible and Immediate Consequence of Trade Tension is Macro • Slower growth … because of uncertainty • Heightened possibility of macro downturn, recession • Hence more financial instability • But there are plenty of more insidious and indirect effects … • Tangent … but the effects on trade are surely critical! Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

16. Macro Consequences of Protectionism Key Question: • What are the macro effects of tariffs? • Output • Productivity • Unemployment • Inequality • Real exchange rate • Trade balance Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

17. Gap in Literature • Much work on protectionism theoretical • Most empirical work microeconomic • Sensible, given heterogeneity in protectionism, identification requirement Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

18. Methodology • Plain Vanilla: Jorda’s (2005) LPM, to account for non-linearity without imposing dynamic restrictions • Large (unbalanced ) panel data covering 151 countries from 1996 to 2014 Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

19. Macro Data • Annual GDP, labor productivity (defined as the ratio of GDP to employment), unemployment rate, real effective exchange rates (period average, deflated by CPI) and trade balance (period average, deflated by GDP): IMF WEO and World Bank WDI • Gini coefficient from the Standardized World Income Inequality Database (SWIID) Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

20. Tariff Data • Based on trade tariff rate data at the product level. The main sources are the World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) and World Development Indicators (WDI); other data sources include: the World Trade Organization (WTO); the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); and the Brussels Customs Union database (BTN) • We aggregate product-level tariff data by calculating weighted averages, with weights given by the export share of each product, measured as fractions of value Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

21. LPM (Jorda) Methodology • yi,t+k - yi,t-1 = αi + γt + βΔTi,t + νXi,t + εi,t • yi,t+k is the outcome variable of interest (log of output, productivity, unemployment rate, Gini coefficient, log real exchange rate, or trade balance/GDP) for country i at time t+k, • {αi} country fixed effects (cross-country heterogeneity), • {γt} time fixed effects (global shocks), • change in the tariff rate, • ν is a vector of nuisance coefficients, • Control variables: two lags of each of: a) changes in the dependent variable, b) the tariff, c) log output, d) the log of real exchange rates and d) the trade balance in percent of GDP • DK standard errors; 90% confidence intervals Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

22. Key Findings Tariff increases lead to: • Economically and statistically significant declines in output and productivity • Increases in inequality and unemployment • Exchange rate appreciation, and little effect on trade balance The effects of tariffs are larger: • When tariffs go up • In advanced economies • During economic expansions Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

23. Tariff rises lead to declines in output and productivity Output (%) Productivity (%) Note: The solid lines indicate the response of output (productivity) to one-standard deviation (about 3.6 percentage points) increase in the tariff rate; dotted lines correspond to 90 percent confidence bands. The x-axis denotes time. t=0 is the year of the reform. Estimates based on equation (1). Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

24. Increases in unemployment and inequality Unemployment (ppt) Inequality (ppt) Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

25. RER appreciates; little effect on trade balance RER (%) Trade balance (ppt of GDP) Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

26. Larger effects for tariff increases… (red is default) Productivity (%)—tariff increases Output (%)—tariff increases Output (%)—tariff decreases Productivity (%)—tariff decreases Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

27. …in advanced economies… Productivity (%)—AEs Output (%)—AEs Output (%)—EMDEs Productivity (%)—EMDEs Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

28. …and in expansions Productivity (%)—Expansions Output (%)—Expansions Output (%)—Recessions Productivity (%)—Recessions Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

29. Robustness checks—endogeneity Productivity (%)—VAR Output (%)—VAR Output (%)—IV Productivity (%)—IV Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

30. Summary of Short-Term Macro Effects • Aversion of economics profession to the deadweight losses caused by protectionism seems well-founded • Tariffs lead to declines in output and productivity, increases in unemployment and inequality • Effects larger for tariff increases, for advanced economies and in expansions Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

31. Back to More Persistent Costs of Trade Reduction • Lower trade integration is costly in income, productivity, welfare • Mostly small now • Costs are mostly in long run supply-side because of foregone productivity and competition (also foregone consumer variety) • Likely to cumulate (consider quasi-autarkies: Cuba, North Korea, Venezuela) • Frankel-Romer, Alcala-Ciccone, Hall-Jones estimates are big • … though others (Rodrik, Subramanian and Trebbi) are not • Banal Second Moment Effect: less trade means less vulnerability to terms of trade shocks • Important for developing countries, commodity exporters • Tangent: current protectionism is NOT counter-cyclic • US perpetrating during long boom with low unemployment and inflation • Unleashed protectionist pressures may be MUCH higher during next recession • Could lead to bigger future negative welfare consequences Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

32. Two Other Consequences of Slowing Trade • Business Cycle Synchronization • Financial Stability • Both Longer Run Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

33. Business Cycle Synchronization is Endogenous • BCS is affected by trade (Frankel-Rose) • Consider two economies hit by shocks which engage in trade • Effect of exogenous decline in trade barrier on BCS? Ambiguous in theory • Negative: If most trade comparative advantage, then more specialization leads to lower BCS IF most shocks are idiosyncratic or productivity shocks • Positive: IF most trade intra industry OR most shocks are either common or preference • Empirically, no ambiguity: more trade leads to higher BCS in practice • Use gravity determinants as instrumental variables • Quite robust: Baxter-Kouparitsas, meta-analysis Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

34. Trade explains part of BCS rise • Trade has been rising (faster than income) for decades … until recently … • So no surprise that business cycles are becoming more synchronized • By symmetry, lower trade leads to more idiosyncratic business cycles • In future, business cycle risk might be more national, hence diversifiable • Less pronounced global business cycle makes work of G20 and IMF easier • Likely increases financial stability Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

35. Reduced BCS affects Financial Stability • Lower Trade and BCS means recessions – and hence financial stability issues – become not only more idiosyncratic diversifiable • But also fewer and more shallow recessions • Why? Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

36. Financial Integration follows Real Integration • In theory and practice, real integration precedes, causes financial • Empirically overwhelming: liberalize goods markets before services; both before factor markets (capital and labor) • Far more countries have significant IMF AREAER restrictions on financial flows than goods • Deviations from LOOP big for goods; often immeasurably bigger for stocks/bonds • McKinnon’s sequencing: international financial liberalization the final step • Financial integration a result of policy choices, typically following real integration • Ex: Europe 1992: capital and labor freedom followed trade liberalization • Generally, goods markets more liberal than services, both more liberal than financial flows • So a world with less real (G&S) integration is likely to also be less financially integrated Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

37. Financial Integration Falls with Trade Tensions • As with goods and services, less integration has its costs • Savings flow less efficiently to good investments • Risks can’t be spread as widely across borders • But considerable skepticism about size of benefits • Rodrik, Gourinchas and Jeanne , … • Different from trade integration Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

38. And … Financial Integration Has Costs • Quasi-Consensus on additional risks of financial integration • Contagion following currency crises in 1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, … • (Relative) Immunity of the financially close in 2008-09 during GFC • International capital flows often “hot”; banking booms risky • More financially closed countries systems may suffer smaller crises compared with open economies, also experience less fewer financial crises • This compares open with closed, not rich and poor • Financial systems of developing countries – often closed – can be looted more effectively by domestic criminals (often their leaders) • Weaker institutions (including weak monitoring, including foreign) the cause Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

39. Financial Insulation not the Objective • Still, protectionism may deliver inadvertent benefit at little cost • Cost of lower trade partially offset by lower contagion, fewer spillovers from foreign shocks Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

40. Conclusion • Many effects of trade tension on financial stability … • And they’re not all bad! Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects

41. Effects of Trade Tension on Financial Stability • Short Run, Bad: higher likelihood of recession, raising financial instability • Long Run, Bad and Good: less trade, lower income and welfare • But may enhance real and financial stability • Import fewer real shocks; financial repression bad for welfare but good for stability • Long Run, Good: less globally coordinated business cycles • More easily diversifiable risk • Long Run, Arguable: encourage rethinking of monetary framework • Exchange rates won’t become more rigid, solidifying financial instability • Long Run, Arguable: less financial integration • Fewer gains from integration (uncertain magnitudes) • Fewer risks from contagion • More dramatic for OECD than developing countries/emerging markets Rose Channel News Asia: Trade Tension Causes and Effects