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Unit 7: Social Psychology. Ch 18: Individual Interaction Ch 19: Group Interaction Ch 20: Attitudes and Social Influence Ch 21: Psychology: Present and Future. Why we need friends.
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Unit 7: Social Psychology Ch 18: Individual Interaction Ch 19: Group Interaction Ch 20: Attitudes and Social Influence Ch 21: Psychology: Present and Future
Why we need friends Social psychology seeks to explain how our thoughts, feelings, perceptions, + ___________ are influenced by ___________ w/ others. Social cognition is a subfield of social psych. that focuses specifically on how we perceive, store, + retrieve information about __________________. As infants we learn to associate _____________________ w/ the satisfaction of ____________. Being around other humans becomes a habit that is difficult to break. We develop needs for _______, respect, love, affection, + other _________________ that can only be satisfied by _______. Ch 18 – Individual Interaction
Anxiety + companionship We seem to need company most when we’re ______ or anxious. We also need it when we’re unsure of ourselves + want to _______________ w/ others. We like to compare our experiences w/ others. (How many of you asked one or more of your classmates how they did on your last psychology test when you got them back?) This helps us to ___________ our own situation. This is how we learn our _______________ ___________. When we are uncertain, we want to socialize w/ people who are in a __________________. Friends offer support in trying times b/c they can serve as __________ + can react to our problems. Friends tend to help __________, be of no significant help w/ _______________ of stress, + hinder people’s ability to deal w/ ___________ of stress. By repeatedly going over _____________ events, you might your sensitivity to them.
How we choose friends Although modern methods of _____________ + communication make it easier to be friends w/ all kinds of people, we rarely go beyond the most ____________________ in making friends. __________ – physical proximity refers to the distance of one person to another person. The closer 2 individuals are geographically (home, school, work, etc…), the more likely they are to form a relationship. We tend to form relationships w/ people we _______________. ___________ – what are you getting out of the friendship? Stimulation value is the ability of a person to _________ in or to expose you to new ideas + ______________. Utility value is the ability of a person to help another achieve his/her ________. Ego-support value is the ability of a person to provide another person w/ _________, encouragement, + __________.
___________________ – our appearance greatly influences others’ impressions of us. People feel better about themselves when they associate w/ people whom others ___________________. We often consider those w/ physical beauty to be more responsive, ________, sociable, intelligent, ______, outgoing, + poised. This is true of same-sex + opposite-sex relationships. One study showed that the only ____________________ attractive people displayed more was that they tend to be more comfortable in ____ __________. We usually seek out others whom we consider to be ________ in attractiveness. _________ – we tend to like people who agree w/ + support us b/c they make us _____________ about ourselves (ego-support value).
__________ – we tend to choose friends whose backgrounds, attitudes, + interests are similar to _____________. Why? Agreement on what is worthwhile + fun, which provides the basis for _______ ____________. Most of us feel uneasy around people who are constantly ____________ our views. Most of us are ____________ enough to assume that people who share our values are basically _____________________. People who agree about things usually find it easier to ___________ w/ each other. Complementarity – the attraction that often develops b/w _____________ of people b/c of the ability of one to supply what the other _______. Helps in some relationships, but most psychologists agree that _________ is a much more important factor. End Section 1
1st impressions Your ____________ of a person are often based on your __________ of him/her. Your 1st impression is usually based on a person’s __________________. The primacy effect is the tendency to ____________ of others based on 1st impressions. These initial judgments often influence us more than ______ ____________ does. These impressions sometimes become a _________________ b/c the way you act toward someone changes depending on your impression of him/her which influences how that person __________ w/ you.
Schemas Forming ____________ helps us place these people into categories or schemas. Schemas are different for _____________. When you meet someone who exhibits a particular characteristic, you might assume he/she possesses ____________________ based on your past experience. Ex. You meet someone who is intelligent + assume she is also interesting. Another person meets her, but assumes she must also be boring. We also develop schemas about people we’ve never met but ________________. Schemas allow us to explain a person’s _____ _______ + to _______ his/her future behavior. They also allow us to organize information so that we can respond appropriately in __________________.
Stereotypes Are a __________________ about people in a given _________ often based on half-truths + non-truths. Occur when we develop _______ for entire groups of people. May contain __________________ information.
Attribution theory A collection of principles based on our ____________ of the causes of events, other people’s behavior, + our own ___________. Internal (or dispositional) attributions refers to a person’s personal ______________. External (or situational) attributions refers to _________________ on their behavior. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute others’ behavior to ________ attributions + ignore the ________ factors contributing to their behavior. The actor-observer bias is our tendency to focus on _______ factors when explaining the behavior of others, but more on __________ factors when explaining our own. We realize our own behavior changes from situation to situation, but when we observe people we don’t take _________________. The self-serving bias is our tendency to claim ______ is due to our efforts, while failure is due to circumstances _____________________.
Nonverbal communication Is the process through which ________ are conveyed using space, ___________, + facial expressions. People are ___________ of their nonverbal communication. We are more aware of nonverbal communication when we’re on the _____________ of the messages. Body language refers specifically to our use of space, posture, + __________. Although the use of body language is often ___________, many of the postures we adopt + gestures we make are governed by ______________. End Section 2
Parent-child relationships Many psychologists believe that early + persistent patterns of _____________ interaction can influence people’s later __________________ about their relationships w/ the significant people in their lives. If our caregivers are loving, responsive + consistent, we _________ other people to meet our needs. If our caregivers are unaffectionate, unresponsive, + inconsistent, we will most likely be more _____________ of other people. As we form relationships w/ people outside our families, we apply what __________ from our families. Our parents (may) provide us w/ the 1st example of a __________ relationship. Many people tend to _________ this model (for better or worse). In our society, parent-child conflict may develop during _____________. Generational identity is the theory that people of ____________ tend to think differently about certain issues b/c of different formative experiences.
Romantic love While love w/o marriage is becoming more common in our society, marriage w/o love is ________________. Marrying for convenience, companionship, financial security, or any reason that _______ __________ strikes most of us as impossible or at least unfortunate. Some believe that one of the main reasons it’s difficult for many people to adjust to love + marriage is b/c we have _________________ about love. This could also explain the #s of _________. There are 2 types of love: ________ love: intense, sensual, + all-consuming. Feelings of great ___________, intense sexuality, + the threat that it might go away. When it subsides, it __________ into the 2nd type. ____________ love: friendship, liking someone, mutual trust, + wanting to be w/ them. More _______, includes commitment + _________.
Like vs. (romantic) love Liking is based primarily on ______ for another person + the feeling that he/she is ________ to you. Loving has 3 major components: _______ (attachment) ________ (the desire to give) _________ (a special knowledge of each other derived from uncensored self-disclosure) People in love feel strong desires to be w/ each other, to _____, to be praised + cared for, to _______, + be fulfilled. W/o caring, need becomes _____________, but w/o need, caring becomes charity or plain ____________. Men + women tend to express the same degree of love for each other, but women ____________their boyfriends more than their boyfriends like them. Women also tend to love + share _________ w/ their same-sex friends more than men do. When both partners express their interest in each other, the relationship is likely to _________. So love isn’t something that happens to you, it’s something you seek + _________.
The triangular theory of love Another psychologist proposed the triangular theory of love which contends that love is made up of 3 parts: __________ __________ _____________ The various combinations of these parts account for the many ___________ love is experienced. Early love is heavy on passion + light on ____________, whereas a couple celebrating their 50th anniversary is heavy on intimacy + commitment, but probably light on _________.
Marriage A couple’s formal + public ___________ to each other. Odds for a successful marriage improve if they have similar ________, economic, + ___________ backgrounds + practice the same __________. Odds are even better if their _____ were happily married, they had happy __________, + maintain good relationships w/ their _________. 2 principles tend to govern behavior leading to successful marriages: Endogamy – The tendency to marry someone who is from one’s own ____ ______. Homogamy – The tendency to marry someone who has _____________ – such as physical attractiveness, age, + physique.
Marital problems + divorce In general, healthy adjustment to marriage depends on 3 factors: 1. Whether their _______ are compatible. 2. Whether their images of themselves + each other are _____________. 3. Whether they agree on what __________ in the marriage are. External factors may make it impossible for either to live up to their own ______________, but often the couple just _____________. In many ways, divorce is like adjusting to ______. A person often _________ even if he/she wanted the divorce. Other common emotions are resentment, fear, loneliness, anxiety, + mostly the feeling of __________. __________________ often occurs – this is when divorced people go through a period of ______ that lasts until they suddenly realize they have _______. They then begin to construct __________ as single people.
Children + divorce A divorce is usually far more ______ for the children than the parents. This is b/c: Children usually ________ the divorce. Children usually ______________ the reasons for the divorce. Children rarely have any _______ over the outcome of a divorce. Children aren’t as _______________ + able to cope w/ the experience. A child whose parents divorce may exhibit behaviors like __________________, depression, +/or __________. How long these behaviors last may be determined by the _________ of the parents’ relationship, the ________ of the child’s life, + the adequacy of the ______________________. Most children do eventually __________ w/ the divorce. It helps if the parents explain the divorce + allow the child to express his/her _________. End Section 3
Groups A collection of people who have a degree of ______________, + some amount of ______________, + shared _______. People who __________ but don’t interact aren’t considered a group but an aggregate. So _________ is the key factor in forming a group. _____________ occurs when any action by 1 member will affect or _______ the other members. In small groups, members usually have a ____________ on each other. But in large groups, the influence may be ________. Ch 19 – Group Interaction
___________ is crucial to the functions of a group. It may be directed outwards toward _________ or internal for group members to discuss group activities + share common goals. It also aids members’ __________________. Shared goals – 2 kinds: Task functions – activities directed toward getting a ___________. Social functions – responses directed toward satisfying the ___________ of members. Usually groups meet both types of goals, but 1 type is __________. A _________ organization seems more useful for task-oriented groups, whereas a ___________ network is more useful in socially oriented groups.
Why do we join groups? They satisfy our need to _______. We use group members as standards against which to ________________ + our experiences. Groups our ___________. Group members may offer us ________ in trying times. Groups provide us w/ _____________. Groups help us accomplish things that we couldn’t do ________.
How are groups held together? Factors that a group’s cohesiveness are: Norms: ______________ that govern the behavior + attitudes of group members. Includes rules, tendencies, + habits. Group members are _________ for breaking them – may only be __________. Ideology: the set of principles, _______, + defined objectives for which a group stands – their _______. Commitment: demonstration of personal _________________________. If a person is willing to pay $, endure hardship, or undergo humiliation to join a group, he/she is ________________ w/ that group. When people actively participate in group decisions + share the ______ of a group’s accomplishments, their feelings of belonging .
Types of groups When a group’s members _______ w/ their group, they are known as the in-group. The out-group includes everyone who isn’t a member of the __________. A primary group is a group of people who interact daily _____________. Tend to be more __________. A secondary group is a larger group of people w/ whom you might have a more ____________________.
Social facilitation vs. social inhibition Social facilitation refers to the tendency to _____________ in the presence of a group. Ex. “Home team advantage”. Seems to occur when participants perform __________________ tasks. Social inhibition refers to the tendency to _____________ in the presence of a group. Ex. Stuttering when giving a speech. Seems to occur when participants perform complex tasks or tasks that involve __________________. The effect of a crowd on your behavior may also be a reflection of your concern about being __________. It’s about ____________!
Interactions w/in groups The particular role(s) we play w/in groups is important. Each group member has certain unique _______________, + the group has a # of different tasks that need to be performed. There are many aspects to group structure: The ______________________ b/w individual members The ______ of each member on a particular dimension (ex. Popularity or power, amount of resources). The roles (__________ expected of individuals) the members are expected to play. Sometimes the roles a person plays may __________.
Decision making Group polarization is the theory that group discussion ________ the majority’s point of view + shifts group members’ opinions to a more ____________________. The _______ of the same arguments results in stronger attitudes in support of the majority’s view. BUT if opinions of a group are _____ ____ on an issue before a discussion, the group discussion usually results in _____________. Groupthink refers to __________ decision making that occurs as a result of a group emphasizing unity over _______________. Group members refrain from criticizing each other + may not discuss _____________________. Decision making can be improved by encouraging group discussion, hearing ALL viewpoints, + _________ each other’s views. Also, focus on the _______.
Leadership A leader embodies the ___________ of the group + represents the group to outsiders. W/in the group, the leader initiates action, gives orders, makes decisions, + __________________. An effective leader has a great deal of _______ on the other members. Leaders tend to be _______________, more self-confident, more energetic + outgoing, + slightly more intelligent than other members of _____________. When a leader is ___________, followers trust the correctness of his/her views, obey him/her willingly, feel affection for the leader, + are more ________ to perform at peak levels. Styles of leadership: ______________ – makes all the decisions + assigns tasks. _____________ – only minimally involved in group decision making, he/she encourages the group to make its own decisions. __________ – encourages the group to make decisions through consensus. End Section 1
Group pressure to conform Conformity is acting in accord w/ ___________ or customs usually b/c of direct or indirect ________________. Many people sometimes conform to other people’s ideas of the truth, even when they __________. Why do we conform? Most children are taught the overriding ____________ of being liked + accepted. Conformity is the standard means of gaining this approval. We learn to __________ throughout our lives. We are more likely to follow rules when an ____________ is present. We usually only need _________ disagreeing w/ the majority in order to be willing to go against a smaller group. It seems that it’s hardest to ______________. Even when we conform, we might not actually change our _____. This contradiction of public behavior + private belief is known as compliance.
Factors that conforming behavior in people Belonging to a group that _________ ____________ of groups rather than individuals. The desire to be ______ by other members of the group. Low _______________. Social shyness. Lack of ____________ w/ a task. __________ (conformity as the size of the group grows to 5-6 people. After that conformity levels off). ___________________.
Obedience to authority The influence _____________ have on your attitudes + behavior is ____________. Sometimes this influence is direct + obvious, other times it’s indirect + ________. Obedience is a change in _______________ brought about by social pressure to comply w/ people perceived to be __________. It can be ______________________. The abuses of German Nazis + American soldiers in Vietnam show that individuals often obey _________________, even when obedience goes against their __________.
The Milgram experiment P.558-560. During 1960s, Stanley Milgram wanted to determine whether participants would administer ___________ to others just b/c an _____________________ told them to. It was a study on people’s ______________________________. Almost 1,000 male participants were told the study was on how ______________________. Participants, the “__________”, were told to administer an electric shock to the “_______” when they answered incorrectly. Shocks weren’t real – but learners acted as if in __________________. ____% of the “teachers” administered the full shock possible b/c they were told to. The teachers often showed signs of extreme discomfort + many wanted to quit but _______ ________________. People assume that authorities know what they are doing, even when their instructions seem to be __________. The experiment has been repeated w/ ______ __________.
The Stanford prison experiment P. 561-562. In 1971, Philip Zimbardo wanted to determine how participants of ________________ would respond to being placed in a simulated prison environment w/ ½ acting as guards + ½ as prisoners. The experiment was planned to last ____________. He created a “_______” in the basement of a building at Stanford Univ. Male volunteers were questioned + then ______________ the role of guard or prisoner. W/in _______, the guards began behaving very harshly w/ the prisoners (excessively punishing + ________ them) + the prisoners, whom at 1st rebelled, eventually became angry + ________. The experiment was called off after _______. Participants, although drastically affected at the time, reported ____________________. Showed the _________________ in affecting people’s actions + personalities. Led to new, tougher _________________ for psychology experiments.
Aggression Any behavior intended to do _____________________ harm to others. There are several theories about what causes people to act in aggressive ways: ________ factors – Humans have innate biological factors that cause aggression (like some wild animals). __________________ also influence a person’s aggressive behavior. ___________ factors – Children learn aggressive behavior by observing + _________ adults. The media also teaches aggressive behavior to children + they can become _____________________. ___________ factors – Certain personality traits (like impulsiveness, little empathy, w/ a dominating nature) can turn a person into a bully. Aggressive people may also be arrogant + often strike out at others to affirm their ____________________. __________ factors –The frustration-aggression hypothesis states that frustration or a failure to _____________________ leads to aggression in certain situations.
Controlling aggression So aggression is a combination of ___________, cognitive, personality, + ____________ factors. How do we limit + control aggression? Catharsis is ____________ or aggression by letting out powerful negative emotions. This can be done by talking it out w/ someone, _________________ ________, etc… But some believe that expressing aggression may lead to _______ ___________ b/c you focus on the problem. _____________ for violent behavior (but the punishment must not be excessive) + limit the amount of __________ they’re exposed to. Can be controlled by teaching people to _____________________ in ways other than violence.
Group conflict vs. cooperation Conflicts b/w groups are a fact of life, but why do they occur + persist? Studies have found that competition (even if it ________________) can lead to conflict. However, when 2 opposing groups have to ____________ + cooperate for the good of all, gradually intergroup tensions lessen + may go away. So the key to ending conflict is ____________. A social trap is when individuals in a group decide not to _________, but to act selfishly + create a ____________ for all.
Helping others (or not) Altruism is the _____________, often at a cost or risk, for reasons other than expectation of a ________. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when the presence of others lessens an individual’s feelings of ___________ for his/her actions or failure to act. We assume that ___________ will/should act. The bystander effect occurs when an individual doesn’t take action b/c of the presence of others. People may even _________ each other not to act. The larger the crowd, the __________ we are to act. We also have a tendency to ______ the need for any response. We may hear screams + wait to make sure it’s a real emergency rather than ____________________ by acting immediately. It’s easier to believe nothing is wrong if others are ___________ + may even make you think that not doing anything is the proper thing to do.
We are more likely to act if a _____ is present, we know the person who needs help, know what kind of help is needed, have seen the correct response modeled before, +/or expect ______________ w/ the person needing help. Social loafing refers to the tendency to put less effort into work when ___________________ w/ others. We realize that our individual contributions are not as apparent + easily measured in a group setting + may also experience a sense of ______________. When people act as individuals, obey their consciences, + are concerned w/ self-evaluation, we think of them as _______________. But when deindividuation occurs, people lose their sense of self + follow _______________. They may behave irrationally when there is less chance of being _______________. May feelings of guilt or self-awareness causing normally pleasant people to _______ _________. But social pressure can also lead people to do good things as well – or just ____________ doing bad things. End Section 3
Attitude A ___________ to act, think, + feel in particular ways towards a class of people, objects, or an _______. Where do attitudes come from? __________ – classical + operant. _________________ – we form opinions after thinking about something or sometimes w/ very little thought. ___________ – culture, parents, peers, experiences, etc… Ch 20 – Attitudes and Social Influence
Functions of attitudes Help us make up our self-concept (how we see or describe ourselves; our _____________ of ourselves). _____________ have attitudes as well. People in the same __________ tend to have the same _________ b/c they are exposed to the same _____________. Serve as guidelines for interpreting + categorizing people, objects, + events, as well as guide us to __________ in certain ways. So they tell us what to approach + what to avoid. Sometimes our attitudes aren’t _________ w/ our behavior. Your behavior may reflect your attitudes more/less strongly depending on why you formed a certain attitude. Many psychologists believe that the attitudes that most strongly predict behavior are those acquired through ___________________. End Section 1
Attitude change There are 3 main processes involved in forming or changing attitudes: Compliance – a _________________ to avoid discomfort or rejection + to gain approval. We often give in to social pressure, but this is usually only ___________ + the attitude doesn’t ________________. Identification – seeing oneself as _______ to another person/group + ______________ __________ of another person/group as one’s own. It’s different from compliance b/c the person _________ the newly adopted views. But these attitudes are _____, b/c if a person stops identifying w/ the other person/group, the attitude may _____.
Internalization – incorporating the values, ideas, + standards of others as part of ___________. The attitude becomes an ________ ______ of the person. It’s most likely to occur when an attitude is _________ w/ a person’s basic beliefs + supports his/her self-image. This is the ____________ of the 3 types of attitude formation/change. Compliance or identification may lead to the ______________ of an attitude. Often the 3 __________.
Cognitive consistency Our attitudes change b/c we’re always trying to get things to fit together ________ inside our heads. Holding 2 opposing attitudes can create ___________________. Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable feeling when a person experiences _________ thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, or feelings. To reduce dissonance, it’s necessary to change either the __________ or the conflicting ___________. How do we reduce dissonance? By __________ it exists. ______ situations or exposure to information that would create conflict. By _________ the attitude +/or reevaluating the event. The process of dissonance reduction doesn’t always take place ___________.
Attitudes + actions Actions can affect ___________ – if you act + speak as though you have certain beliefs + feelings, you may begin to really believe + feel that way. That is known as counterattitudinal behavior. This is also a method of reducing ___________ ____________. People have a need for self-justification (the need to ___________ one’s attitude + behavior). Studies have shown that if people are led to believe they’ve ___ someone, they will convince themselves they didn’t like the victim + so the victim ______ the injury. A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a person ____ in such a way as to make a belief, prediction, or expectation _______________. Ex. You think people are basically nice + so you are very friendly – making people like you, or you think people are basically rude + so you are very unfriendly – making people _____________.
Prejudice A preconceived attitude toward a person or group that has been formed w/o sufficient evidence + isn’t _______________. _____________________. It’s not always __________. Can be based on social, economic, or physical factors. A stereotype is an oversimplified, hard to change way of seeing people who belong to __________. A role is an oversimplified, hard to change way _________. What causes prejudice? People tend to be prejudice in favor of those they see as ______ to themselves + against those they see as ____________. May acquire it through ______________. Other causes as well. Discrimination is the ___________________ of members of certain groups. Prejudice is an ________ + discrimination is an ___________. A person may be prejudice, but not discriminate. Also, a person may discriminate (due to something like social pressure) but not be prejudice. End Section 2
Persuasion A direct attempt to ______________________. The persuader’s main hope is that by changing the other person’s attitudes, he/she can change that person’s __________ as well. Persuasive communication can be broken into 4 parts: 1. The __________ of the message. Is it trustworthy + sincere? Is he/she _______________ about the subject? Is he/she ___________? - If the answer to all these questions is yes, the message is more likely to be __________. - The boomerang effect is when a change in attitude or behavior ______ of the one desired by the persuader occurs. - Ex. You don’t like the sports player trying to get you to buy a particular pair of shoes.
2. The ___________ itself. The persuasiveness of a message depends on its content + how it is composed + organized. The central route for persuasion relies on presenting information __________. The peripheral route for persuasion relies on ___________ appeals. 3. The ___________ through which it’s delivered. When, where, + how the message is delivered. Personal contact is usually the most _______. Movies, tv, + the internet are more effective media of persuasion than ____________ b/c we’re more likely to believe what we see + hear. 4. The ____________ that receives it. Persuading people to alter their views depends on knowing who they are + why they hold the __________ they do. You need to know what __________ them. People tend to ignore information that doesn’t _______________________.
Heuristics Rules of thumb or ________that may lead to but doesn’t guarantee a __________. If an individual isn’t __________ in an issue, he/she is likely to rely on heuristic processing (a very casual, low-attention form of _______________). Advertisers use heuristics to get us to buy their products by using ________, stressing their product’s popularity, having it endorsed by a _______, etc…
