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Forage and Grain Legumes

Forage and Grain Legumes. Characteristics: Nitrogen fixation Foliage and seeds high protein Compound leaves Seed in pods Flower keel. Keel. Legume Nutrient Composition (g). Legume Protein Fat Carbohydrates Fiber White Beans 23.4 0.9 60.3 15.2

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Forage and Grain Legumes

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  1. Forage and Grain Legumes Characteristics: Nitrogen fixation Foliage and seeds high protein Compound leaves Seed in pods Flower keel Keel

  2. Legume Nutrient Composition (g) Legume Protein Fat Carbohydrates Fiber White Beans 23.4 0.9 60.3 15.2 Kidney Beans 22.5 1.1 61.3 15.2 Chickpeas 19.3 6.0 60.1 17.4 Lentils 25.8 1.1 60.1 30.5 Peanuts 25.8 49.216.18.5 Peas 24.6 1.2 60.4 25.5 Soybeans 36.5 19.930.2 9.3 Adapted from USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (2007)

  3. World Oilseed Production (%) 4 7 11 8 59 11

  4. Grain Legumes Soybeans Field Beans Kidney Beans Navy Beans Pinto Beans Black Beans Cranberry Beans Great Northern Beans Peanuts Runner Virginia Spanish Valencia Lentil Lupine Chickpea

  5. Field Beans Kidney Beans: no cholesterol, source of nutrition similar to potato, moderate carbohydrates, most popular usage is chili. Navy Beans: pea sized white beans for cooking. Pinto Beans: named for its mottled skin, most common bean U. S. and NW Mexico, eaten whole in broth or mashed and refried, young pods used as green beans. Black Beans: small, shiny,dense meaty texture, vegetarian Cranberry Bean: medium large tan, red-black streaks

  6. Peanuts (groundnuts) Arachis hypogaea Annual South America (Brazil) Sub-tropical/tropical Georgia Sandy of loose soil Allergy 3-4 year rotation after grass

  7. Peanuts Spanish Pinnately compound leaf Taproot Flowers on lower leaf axils Self-pollinated Peg pushes ovary under ground 3 seeds /pod Types: Runner: Predominant type Peanut butter 50+% Virginia: Large seed, snack peanuts Spanish: Small seed High oil, snacks, candy, peanut butter Valencia: Sweet, sold-in-the-shell or boiled

  8. Lentil Lens cukinaris Southern Asia Cool-season annual India (50%) and Canada Low rainfall Bushy, 15” tall Semi-erect, short, tendrils Two seeds per pod High protein grain Human food - soup

  9. Lupine Lupinus Mediterranean Cool-season Avoid hot temps Cold causes determinant growth. Wis., Minn., New England White, yellow and blue types High protein Poultry, swine , cattle, human Well drained low pH Course soils

  10. Soybean Acreageand Yield Major world oil-seed crop Livestock meal Largest Production U.S., Brazil, Argentina Iowa, Illinois Illinois 9.0 million in 2008 (+10% ) 8.2 million in 2007 (-19%) 10.1 million in 2006 U.S. 70.8 million in 2008 (+11% ) 63.6 million in 2007 (-5%) 67.1 million in 2006

  11. Soybeans (Chapter 24) Glycine max One of oldest oil and protein crops. Leading vegetable oil. Introduced from China 1800’s. Ornamental in Iowa 1852. Subtropical legume Short day annual Similar climate as corn. Tolerates poorer soils pH > 7.5 shows chlorosis 50oF minimum Ovary Ovule

  12. Global Warming and Soybean Production CO2 has increased over past 100 years Soybeans “like” CO2 Increased yield Not all varieties Bigger plants Mature later O3 has increased over past 50 years Soybeans “don’t like” O3 Yield loss O3 > 40 ppb Currently 60 ppb in Midwest during day Variable day-to-day and year-to-year 10% yield loss 3% - 5%minimum

  13. Plant Characteristics Determinant and indeterminate Self-pollinated Pubescent Racemes Purple or white flowers 60% - 75% seed set 1 - 4 seeds/pod Infected by Rhizobium Nitrogen fixing bacteria Root nodules

  14. Seed Inoculation Bradyrhizobium japonicum Symbiotic Bacteria receives carbon products Plant receives Nitrogen Enter root  forms nodule (nitrogenase) Need pH > 6.5 Self inoculate If soybeans in past 3 years Inoculate if no soybeans in 5 years Application: Peat based slurry Clay based dry Granular Poor nodulation  poor crop Bacteria killed by fungicide seed treatment

  15. Crop Rotation Soybeans after Soybeans: Prob. Disease Insects Weeds Allelopath from residue One year rotation needed U of I: 5 bu/A advantage with corn rotation. Double-Cropping: Winter wheat central and southern Illinois 50% - 60% yield potential Drill or 15 inch rows Increase population 50% - 100% Mid-to full-season variety for area Do not use determinant varieties short plant  low yield

  16. Planting Date Best in May April planting puts crop at risk No consistent yield increase Full-season early May .25 - .67 bu/A loss/day after May 1 Early planting = 4” shorter 2 more nods more branching more double pods emergence +14 days fungicide + insecticide Early varieties late May Better for late planting than corn Yield loss minor Severe loss past early June Offset loss by: narrower rows higher seeding rate (20% - 30%) Iowa State University

  17. Planting Date Flowering date and pod fill minor affect minor Late planted flower earlier Photoperiod sensitive Warm night temperature accelerates flowering Late planting reduces time to maturity. Normal = 45 – 60 days full-season Late: Shorter plants Fewer leaves Lower yield. Planting  maturity reduce up to 25 days Each 2-3 day delay reduces maturity 1 day.

  18. Planting Rate Target: 6-9 plants/foot 30 inch rows 5-6 plants/foot 20 inch rows 3-4 plants/foot 10 inch rows 150,000 ppa Yield gain modest at 180,000 – 200,000 ppa. Seed cost increase Need lodging resistant varieties Need complete canopy at pod formation. Low densities cause harvest problems Low pods Excessive branching Most varieties respond same to planting rate until lodging results U of Illinois

  19. Planting Depth and Replant Planting Depth 1.5 – 2 inches deep >2 inches varieties differ Ability of hypocotyl to elongate Replant: Large plant compensation More branches and pods. 10% reduction = -1% yield 20% reduction = -3% yield 40% reduction = -8% yield 50% reduction = -13% yield U of Minnesota

  20. Row Width Better yield at <30 inch rows 80% Illinois in narrow rows 15 inch increasing Advantage = 0% - 20% No drilled advantage Need weed control Greatest for early varieties Smaller gains in full-season Narrow row prediction: If full canopy not developed by pod development, narrow rows will have advantage Variety maturity: Early – smallest canopy Delayed planting reduces canopy Double-cropped beans

  21. Seed Size Little detrimental effect of small seed Emergence Plant size Plant height Yield Seed quality more important than seed size. Seed sold by weight Small seed cost effective Excessive seeding rate: Thick stands > more lodging

  22. Vegetative Soybean Growth Stages Based on main stem Count number of nodes with trifoliate leaves expanded VE: epigeal emergence, unifoliate leaves, growing point above cotyledon node VC: unifoliate leaves fully expanded and unfold V1: first node, cotyledons, unifoliate leaves, one set of trifoliate leaves expanded V4: fourth node, four fully expanded trifoliate leaves Vn: n represents the number of trifoliate leaves on main stem Overlapping vegetative and reproductive stages because: Indeterminate crop.

  23. Reproductive Soybean Growth Stages Four main stages: bloom, pod, seed, maturity R1: beginning bloom, one open flower at any node, at V7-V10, begins in middle and moves to top and bottom of plant R2: full bloom, open flower at one of two upper nodes with fully developed leaf R3: beginning pod, pod 5mm long at one of top four nodes with fully expanded leaf, V11-V17, peak flower development R4: full pod, pod 2 cm long at one of top four nodes with fully developed leaf, rapid pod growth and seed development R5: beginning seed, flowering complete, 3mm seed in pod at one of top four nodes with fully expanded leaf, susceptible to stress R6: full seed, seed fills pod cavity at one of four top nodes with fully expanded leaf, V16-V25, leaves yellow, brown, and fall R7: beginning maturity, one pod normal color, physiological maturity R8: full maturity, 95% pods mature color, 5-10 days pre-harvest (13%)

  24. Soybean Yield Illinois yields leveled off. Genetics Management Weather

  25. 2006 & 2007 Record Yield Kip Cullers, Purdy, Missouri 2006 yield was 139.39 May 20 7.5 inch rows 245,000 ppa 120 pods per stem Irrigated daily Warrior insect, Headline fungicide 2007 was 154.7 220,000 ppa Pioneer 94M80 group IV RR, SDS, SCN May 7 Twin rows 9 inch apart 3 tons turkey litter/acre + 0-0-60 potassium sulfate Headline fungicide applied twice + Respect insecticide Optimize growth promoter Chops corn stalks + disks 6 times + residue blend (sugar + N + microbes) followed by disk rip & moldboard plow Irrigated

  26. Yield Determination Measure 1/1,000 of acre. 75 ft for 7 inch rows 35 ft for 15 inch rows 17.5 ft for 30 inch rows Count plant number. Count pod number. 10 random plants Pods/A = (plants/A) x (pods/ plant) Seeds/A = (pods/A) x (seeds/pod) Use actual or 2.5 seeds/pod Pounds/A = (seeds/A) / (2,500 seeds/lb) Use actual or 2,500 seeds/lb) Seed guides show 3,000 seeds/lb) Yield (bu/A) = (lbs/A) / (60 lbs/bu)

  27. Soybean Varieties Relative Maturity Groups: 00 to IX 00-IV = indeterminant V-IX = determinant Problem with determinant? Northern Illinois in group II Can grow groups I to III. Full-season highest yields

  28. Roundup Ready Roundup Ready Varieties: Released 1997 95% of U.S. soybean acreage 95% of Illinois acreage Slightly higher yields 3.4 bu/A Why? Glyphosate Herbicide Inhibit enzyme Synthesis of the amino acids tyrosine, tryptophan and phenylalanine. Absorbed through foliage Translocated to growing points Agrobacterium strain CP4 Resistance gene

  29. Roundup Ready Value: Low toxicity No carryover Broad spectrum Not single gene resistance Cheap (Chinese) Not soil applied Conservation tillage Disadvantage: Untimely application Reapply late season Weed resistance www.weedtool.com Cross-pollination Crops  weeds

  30. Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN) How important? #1 soybean yield loss to pathogen Widely distributed across soybean acres. North Carolina 1954 Soil from Asia for soybean inoculation. Spread wind, water, animals (birds) machinery SCN: Heterodera glycines Nematode (animal) –up to 6 generations/year 7 HG race types Egg Cyst protects eggs Juvenile enter root Male leave root no damage Female damage plant Mature 14-21 days Yellow Only visible Sign of infection White Female

  31. Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN) Infection: Soybean growth favors SCN Plant nutrients removed Nutrient & water uptake disrupted Root growth retarded Reduce nodules Symptoms: Stunted, yellow Generally, no symptoms (esp. high yield) Low yield (fewer pods) Seed #, size, and quality same Interaction: Create entry point for fungal diseases Increases spread and severity of SDS &BSR Treat SCN first!

  32. Soybean Cyst Nematode (SCN) Production Recommendations: • Rotate with nonhost crops (grasses). • Rotate with resistant soybean varieties. • Rotate resistant varieties. • Rotate tolerant/susceptible varieties only if SCN low. • Control weeds, water and fertility. • No-till, late planting may be beneficial. • Monitor SCN populations. Resistance based on Female Index (FI) values. FI = (cyst # test line) / (cyst # susceptible line)(100) HR = 0-9 R = 10-24 MR = 25-39 LR = 40-59 NR = >60 Example: Susceptible has 61 cyst and resistant has 21 cyst. FI = 21/61 x 100 = 34 = MR

  33. Sudden Death Syndrome Soil Fungus 2nd to SCN 80% infected fields During pod set and fill spreads with SCN Need right conditions Previous SDS Poor drained soils/compaction Cool wet summer Well fertilized fields Begins as hot spots Early planting/maturity Cultural Practices Deep tillage – eliminate compaction Delayed planting – warm dry soils Resistant varieties SDS: Rots roots-brown to gray Toxin scorches leaves Scattered yellow blotches Leaves brown/veins green Leaves drop petioles remain

  34. Charcoal Rot Black sclerotia on lower stem and root Red-brown lesions early Premature plant wilting and death R3 – R6 Extended hot dry weather Management: Reduced population Rotation Full maturity group Irrigation

  35. Phytophthora sojae Root and stem rot Wet, cool (50o – 60o) soils Heavy clay in no-till or reduced till 70 new races Races differ by state Acres: Ohio 90%  Kansas 10% Illinois = 25% Resistance Genes (Rps): 1a, 1b, 1c, 1k, 2, 3, 6, and 8(new) Best varieties also have Rps + tolerance Control: Seed treatment with metalaxyl Resistance + tolerance + drainage + seed treatment

  36. Asian Soybean Rust U.S. in 2004 15 states in 2006 8 southern Illinois counties Canada Enters from south (Florida, Mexico) Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas  N Mississippi River valley route Fungal disease Brazilian disease 69oF – 89oF and 80% humidity Leaves yellow and fall off Sensitive to light and rain Ok if at stage R6 Late planted beans Problem 1 of 10 years Mild winter www.epa.gov/oppfead1/cb/csb_page/updates/soybean_rust.htm

  37. Asian Soybean Rust Control: Rust in R1 and R3 – strobilurin High rust risk – triazole or Premix, Tank Mix, Co-Pack

  38. Soybean Aphid Small yellowish glob-shapped Leaves wilt, curl, yellowing and distorted Stunted plant, dark sooty mold Tender leaves and branches 1st Middle/lower underside of leaves and stems Time: V1-V2 upper leaves, petioles, stems R1-R4 undersides mid-canopy leaves, stems Conditions: Cool summers, late planting, hot dry stress Previous infestation High overwintering population Management: Spray at 250/plant and 80% of field Foliar insecticide Lady beetles

  39. Stink Bugs Redbanded, Southern Green, Brown, Green Flat pod delayed maturity Brown and green attack pods Small brown/black spots Young seeds deformed or small Old seeds shriveled and discolored R1-R7 Common along Louisiana and Texas coast Management: Resistant varieties Planting date Spraying at threshold

  40. Bean Leaf Beetle Transmits Bean Pod Mottle Virus (BPMV) Small round holes between veins Pods clipped, outside pod tissue eaten Overwinter on legumes 7 woodlots  Economic loss  20%-40% plants infected 1st feed on cotyledons and leaves 2nd generation feeds on leaves 3rd generation feeds on leaves and pods Leaf feeding = early planting hot temps Yellow-green blotchy Pod feeding = late planted low temps Management: Spraying at threshold (Warrior, Cruiser) • Beetles (16/1’ row VC or 39/1’ row V2+) • VC-V2 stage • BPMV symptoms

  41. Spider Mites Leaves appear sandblasted Heavy infestation red/brown and die Leaves wilt and die Webbing on underside V2-R7 Drought conditions Management: No threshold Spray Cool wet may reduce population

  42. Soybean Biodiesel 12% of soybean yield  biodiesel 1.5 gallons biodieselper bushel Biodiesel Warranty B5 Blend: B20 Blend: Caterpillar Case IH Daimler Chrysler Cummins Detroit Diesel New Holland Ford Motor Company General Motors B100 Blend International Fairbanks Morse John Deere Kubota Mack

  43. Specialty Soybeans Contract acres + premium Must be identity preserved Tofu: Clear hilum High Protein: Tofu or Soy Milk Sulfonylurea Tolerant (STS): Sulfonylurea tolerant (Synchrony STS) Non-GMO and Organic Natto: Fermented soybean food High Oleic, Low Linolenic = Low Saturate: Heart healthy edible oil High Sucrose: Soy milk, cheese, meat analogs Trans-fatty acid 1% linolenic Natto

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