Motivation in Learning and Teaching

1. Motivation in Learning and Teaching Chapter 11

2. Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation • Intrinsic: The motivation is inside the task—the activity is enjoyable in and of itself • Ex: José enjoys reading novels and would be content to do so without encouragement or rewards from parents or teachers • Extrinsic: The motivation is outside the task—e.g. rewards and punishments • Ex: Luke only does chores around the farm to earn some free time on Friday night, or to keep his uncle from nagging • Locus of Causality: The location of the cause of motivation. Do I do something because I freely choose to (internal locus) or because of an outside factor (external locus)

3. 5 General Approaches to Motivation • Behavioral • Emphasis on extrinsic sources • Individuals motivated by rewards & incentives • Reward: consequence of particular behavior • Incentive: encourages/discourages particular behavior (before it occurs) • Humanistic • Theorists: Rogers, Maslow, Deci & Ryan • Emphasis on intrinsic sources: Self-actualization, autonomy, competence, self-esteem, etc.

4. 5 General Approaches to Motivation cont’d • Cognitive • Emphasis on intrinsic • Behavior determined by thinking: Initiated by goals, schemas, expectations and attributions • Social Cognitive • Integration of behavior and cognitive approaches • Expectancy-value theory: Motivation is the product of an expectation to reach the goal coupled with the value placed on the goal

5. 5 General Approaches to Motivation cont’d • Sociocultural • Emphasize identification with, and participation in communities of practice • Individuals motivated to maintain identities • “Legitimate peripheral participation”: Beginners have a role in the community Which theory provides the best explanation for you own motivation to learn?

6. II. Needs • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Self-Determination Theory)

7. Deficiency needs Motivation decreases when met Pre-requisite Survival Safety Belonging Self-esteem Being needs Motivation does not decrease when met Whole person Intellect/achievement Aesthetics Self-actualization (the realization of personal growth) Maslow’s Hierarchy

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy Self- Actualization Need Being (growth) Needs Motivation increases as needs are met Aesthetic Needs Need to know and Understand Esteem Needs Deficiency Needs Motivation decreases as needs are met Belongingness and Love Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs

9. Needs for Competence, Autonomy, & Relatedness • Self-Determination Theory: we all need to feel competent and capable, to have some choices (desire to determine our own actions), and to feel connected to others—we are motivated to determine our own actions • Classrooms that support student autonomy are associated with students who: • have greater interest • feel more competent • are more creative • show a preference for challenges What can you do to create this kind of environment?

10. Encouraging Autonomy • Allow/encourage student choice-Ex. design different ways for students to meet the same objective, student committees, provide time for independent projects • Help students plan to accomplish self-selected goals-Ex. have students write down goals & steps needed to reach them (create checklist) • Hold students accountable for consequences of their choices-Ex. socialization rather than progress in group projects is graded accordingly • Provide rationales- Ex. explain reasons for rules • Validate (appropriate) emotional reactions to teacher control • Use noncontrolling, positive feedback- Ex. viewing problem behaviors/performance as a problem to be solved rather than a target for criticism, avoid controlling language (should, must, have to)

11. Achievement Goal Orientations • Mastery (Learning) goals • Goal is to learn, improve • Task-involved learners are not concerned about how they appear to others (not afraid to ask “stupid” questions) • Characterized by utilization of deeper cognitive processing strategies, & higher self-efficacy • Performance goals • Ego-involved (extrinsic) • Goal is the good grade, beating others, demonstrating skill (concerned w/appearance) • May hinder learning (Ex.- cheating to get good grade)

12. Goal Orientations cont’d • Work-avoidance goals • Concern isn’t with learning or looking good—just avoiding the work! • “Success” occurs when work is made easier or avoided altogether • Social goals • Social needs (goals) are an important part of the learning environment for many students • Can help or hinder learning • Examples: Making friends, avoiding academic tasks, creating study groups, studying to honor the family, etc…

13. Beliefs about Self-Worth • Learned helplessness results when individuals believe that events and outcomes are mostly uncontrollable—why bother trying? • Mastery-oriented students • Believe ability can be improved • Attribute success to effort • Not fearful of failure—they take risks in learning • Strong sense of self-efficacy

14. Beliefs about Self-Worth cont’d • Failure-avoiding students • Believe ability is set (entity view) • Link performance to self-worth • Avoid risk • Adopt self-handicapping strategies • Failure-accepting students • Believe failure is due to low ability What are some steps teachers can take to prevent failure-avoiding students from becoming failure-accepting?

15. V. Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety • What are some ways to get students interested in learning? • Does making learning fun make for good learning? • What role do emotions play in learning? • Students are emotional beings. What does this mean for teaching?

16. Achievement Emotions • Mastery goals associated with enjoyment, hope, pride. Students adopting mastery goals less like to feel bored or angry • Performance-approach goals related to pride. • Performance-avoidance related to fear of failing, anxiety, hopelessness, and shame How can you increase positive achievement emotions?

17. Arousal & Anxiety • Optimum level of arousal—generally, high for simple/easy tasks, low for difficult/complex tasks • Generally, anxiety and achievement are inversely related • Anxiety encouraged when there is pressure to perform, severe consequences for failure, and competitive comparisons among students

18. Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety cont’d • Make sure instructions are clear • Written instead of given orally • If using a new format, give students examples of how it is done • Avoid unnecessary time pressures • Give occasional take-home tests • Make sure all students can complete the task in the given time

19. Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety cont’d • Remove some pressures from major tests and exams • Teach test-taking skills, provide study guides • Avoid basing most of a report-card grade on one test • Make extra-credit available • Use different types of items • Develop alternatives to written tests • Try oral, open-book, or group tests • Teach self-regulation strategies • Encourage students to view test as challenge they are prepared for • Encourage students to pick out the main idea and to stay relaxed • Encourage students to reflect on the strategies used

20. VII. Diversity and Convergences in Motivation to Learn • Motivation grows from individual’s needs, goals, interests, emotions, beliefs, etc. • Students differ in terms of language, culture, economic privilege, knowledge, experience, etc. In what ways would motivation differ in these high schools students: • a minority student from a family whose resources are limited but who place high value on education, and • a student from the majority culture from a family who has adequate resources, but has yet to entertain post-graduation options?

21. Convergences: Strategies to Encourage Motivation • Four conditions must be met in order for motivational strategies to succeed • Well organized classroom free of constant interruptions • Teacher is patient and supportive • Challenging, but reasonable work • Authentic learning tasks • Build confidence • Begin at students’ ability level and move in small steps • Assure that learning goals are clear, specific, and attainable • Emphasize self-comparison • Communicate that ability is improvable • Model good problem solving

22. Convergences: Strategies to Encourage Motivation cont’d • Help students see value in learning • Tie activities to student interests • Arouse curiosity • Make the learning task fun • Make use of novelty and familiarity • Make connections to previous learning explicit • Judicial use of incentives and rewards • Use ill-structured and authentic tasks

23. Convergences: Strategies to Encourage Motivation cont’d • Help students stay focused on the task • Give students frequent opportunities to respond • Have students create a finished product • Avoid heavy emphasis on grades and competition • Reduce the task risk without oversimplifying the task • Model motivation to learn • Teach the particular learning tactics • Promote a sense of belonging • Covered in Chapter 12—stay tuned!