1950s Education: Civil Defense and the Push for Curriculum Reform

1950s Education: Civil Defense and the Push for Curriculum Reform Dominant Interpretations & Themes Chapter 3 Bonnie Pazin ILEAD 5

Civil Defense Education and the Post-Sputnik Era • Politics – Eisenhower Administration • Climate and Federal Government Role • School Preparedness & Safety Education • Role of principals and teachers in schools • Curriculum • Science and math reform • Issues carry forth to today • Science/Technology and Math Curriculum • Terrorism

General Climate of the 1950’s • Early 50’s marked the detonation of the hydrogen bombs • Space race escalated • Hysteria and panic in general atmosphere – fears of communism, atomic/nuclear bombs • Civil defense education seen as a way to prepare the general public including school children • Civil defense education seen as necessary, as future wars would involve both military and civilians in case of attack on US soil

Civil Defense Roots • Truman stated “Education is our first line of defense. In the conflict of principal and policy which divides the world today, America’s hope, our hope, the hope of the world is education.” • Truman created the Federal Civil Defense Administration (1951) • Encourage and coordinate nation’s civil preparedness

The FCDA • The Federal Civil Defense Administration (1951) • Left practical implementation and funding to state and local governments • Did not allocate federal funds to civil defense projects • Produced educational and propaganda materials intended to mobilize state and local agencies and private individuals to spend their own funds to implement programs

Women Promote Civil Defense • Katherine Graham Howard • Deputy Administrator for the FCDA • Tireless civil defense advocate • Helped promote role of women in civil defense • Civil defense seen as an opportunity for women to get involved; play an important role • Family seen as the unit of survival in civil defense; women had key role in family

Example of Civil Defense PreparationThe Red Scare in New Orleans • Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Civil Defense maintained an active program to instruct citizens in procedures to follow in the event of nuclear attack. • Fallout shelters were designated throughout the city, including the basements of the new City Hall and the new Main Library (where fallout shelter signs can still be seen). • The city installed an elaborate warning system of 76 large sirens and even built a fully equipped command center from which city officials could "safely" direct the operations of rescue and salvage following an attack. • The bunker remains on the neutral ground between West End and Pontchartrain Boulevards, abandoned now, along with the fears that pervaded the 50s and 60s. • [Louisiana Photograph Collection. Municipal Government Collection; Office of Civil Defense Series] – Taken from website: http://nutrias.org/~nopl/exhibits/ccmem.htm • These are "ground observers," civilian volunteers trained by the Office of Civil Defense to spot enemy invaders, photographed atop the Hibernia Bank building in February, 1955.

Civil Defense and Education • FCDA mobilized state and local agencies for the cause • Did the best they could with no federal funds • Often used other areas of the budget but had to justify and tie the original purpose of the budgeted area to civil defense • FCDA produced educational materials about civil defense – brochures, films, etc. • Strongly precautionary stance about its powers of mass destruction • Units on communism were also developed at same time by state departments of education • Advised how to build fallout shelters, what to stockpile, how to survive atomic blast • Over 100,000 Americans prepared their own fallout shelters

Civil Defense and Education • Much of education in general developed and promoted civil defense including state departments of education, US Office of Education, schools of education • Most state departments of education prepared civil defense strategies and materials for use in schools • Teachers were considered key people in civil defense • Teachers were to try to reduce potential for trauma in young children • Impacted safety education, atomic bomb drills, changes in school architecture as well as through formal curriculum of science and math

Civil Defense in Schools • Civil Defense became a way of life in American schools • Clara P. McMahon, Elementary School Journal • Advised teachers that schools must adjust curriculum to incorporate qualities of students needed in an emergency • Listed 9 desired skills including • Acting without panic • Administering simple first aid • Thinking critically, problem solving • Working well with others • Recognizing and obeying air raid signals

An air raid siren in L.A. School Preparedness Procedures • Many schools implemented procedures and actual bomb drills; issued “dog tags” • Smooth implementation was delegated to building principals • Detroit public schools issued a directive, “Protection of School Children in the New Emergency: Preliminary Guide for Immediate Action with 10 steps for principals • Detroit considered a high-profile target city due to auto industry and took serious precautions

Civil Defense Education – Getting Parents Involved • Civil defense educators saw schools as a communication channel to parents • Communities formed district-wide committees involving parents • School districts sent letters home with students • Parents were advised to discuss issues with their children

Civil Defense – Curriculum and Instruction in Science & Math • US Atomic Energy Commission developed workshops and institutes for teachers • Schools of education developed programs in higher ed • Information about atomic energy infused into curriculum as units in existing science and social studies in high schools • Elementary students even incorporated atomic energy into their readings • Example – a 2nd grade essay on “good atoms”

Educators drive for federal aid • New civil defense ultimately allowed educators to demonstrate the importance of the nation’s schools to national security • Hoped to use that to justify federal aid to education • Educators’ response to civil defense in the 50s has been described as “public uniformity” and sometimes educators were more willing to comply with civil defense education than the FCDA needed (JoAnne Brown, Journal of American History)

The Time of the Eisenhower Administration • US generally economically prosperous and affluent; growing middle class; rise of suburbia and development of highways • Eisenhower a moderate Republican who was seen as a reassuring father figure in a frightening time • Had two premises to his foreign policy • Avoiding the catastrophe of nuclear war • Maintaining national security through nuclear deterrence

Eisenhower on Education • Truman, his predecessor, believed that the federal government had a role in advancing education • Eisenhower, however, believed education should be handled at state and local levels • Did not believe federal government had large role in education

Eisenhower on Education • Despite his reluctance he was drawn into education issues • Establishment of Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1953) • Supreme Court ruling that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional (1954) • Little Rock, Arkansas desegregation controversy • Enactment of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA – 1957)

National Defense Education Act • 1957 -- National Defense Education Act (NDEA) • Gave assistance to • Science & Technology • Math • Foreign language instruction • Guidance • Based on premise that federal government had an interest in these areas related to national defense • Eisenhower stated that it would strengthen our schools and advance our national security

National Defense Education Act • Over $100 million annually sent to aid public education • Led to curricular developments • New Math • New Chemistry, New Physics • Increase in Foreign Language Study • Technology education studies • Teachers institutes were created • Brought classroom teachers to colleges & universities over the summer to work with innovators in their fields

Sputnik was the catalyst • October 4, 1957 • Soviets launch successfully a space satellite that orbited the earth • Generated international, widespread criticism of American education especially in math, science and technology • Seen as a decline in academic rigor allowing USSR to “take the lead in the space race” • By concentrating more rigorously on math & science in US schools, Americans could reclaim the lead

F. James Rutherford • F. James Rutherford • American Association for the Advancement of Science, “Sputnik in Science Education” • Speaks of pre- and post-Sputnik education • Concerns in pre-Sputnik / Post WWII era concerned with demographics and returning veterans • Often called post-Sputnik era, the concerns were curricular: • What was being taught and how • Another key difference between pre and post-Sputnik eras was the assignment of blame • Pre-Sputnik – military and politicians received blame for Pearl Harbor and not educators • Post-Sputnik – blame shifted to schools • In 2005, launched Project 2061 – which is dedicated to scientific literacy by all

J. Myron Atkin • Applying Historic Lessons To Current Educational Reform • J. Myron Atkin, School of EducationStanford University • “never before had scientists from the highest echelons of the academic community had such a controlling influence on elementary and secondary school curriculum” • Began a trend that leads to today’s education • Not only did university professors criticize what they saw in schools, many became deeply and personally committed to change • Experts turned their talents that had been used to create the bombs to peaceful efforts • Had support of “admiring and grateful public” • Had unprecedented influence in matters of public policy, including education

J. Myron Atkin (continued) • Teachers in the 50’s were assumed to have best knowledge of how to convey information scientific content to students, but the responsibility for content lay with the scientists • Today the policymakers realize that teachers must be closely involved with content - key decisions made today by stakeholders including academia, teachers, parents, scientists, industry ,etc. • Even though today science-related issues are at the forefront of society, it is harder and harder to get students involved

Rodger W. Bybee • Rodger W. Bybee • Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Education, National Research Council • In the 50’s a mathematical reform was already initiated by Max Beberman, University of Illinoic Committee on School Mathematics (UICSM) • Sputnik was a historical turning point – symbolized a threat to American security, to superiority in science and technology, progress, and political freedom • US perceived itself as weak – scientifically, technologically, militarily and economically • Educational reform was broadened and accelerated; supported by public, policy makers increased federal funding • Called it the “Golden Age” of science and mathematics education

Civil Defense Today • Civil Defense has continued through the years and is alive and well today • Ex. Ronald’ Reagan’s Crisis Relocation Plan 1983 • Presently known as Homeland Security and Emergency Management • Has taken new role after 9/11 and as threat of terrorism becomes more prevalent in U.S.

Dominant Perspective Research to be continued… • Long term effects of civil defense education today • The notion that civil defense is alive and well as homeland security and terrorism • Movement to reform science education after Sputnik and the beginning of the space race • The involvement of federal government in education vs. state and local governments

Part 2 References • Brown, JoAnne. “A is for Atom, B is for Bomb”: Civil Defense In American Public Education, 1948-1963. The Journal of American History, 75, No. 1 (June 1988), pp. 68-90. Retrieved September 15, 2006 from http://www.jstor.org/cgi-bin/jstor/printpage/00218723/di952432/95p0006c/0.pdf? backcontext=page&dowhat=Acrobat&config=jstor&userID=c07c22c5@unt.edu/01cce4403700501c76dd1&0.pdf • http://www.wikipedia.org • http://www.archives.nysed.gov/edpolicy/research/chronology1944.shtml • http://www.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html?src=ln • http://nutrias.org/~nopl/exhibits/ccmem.htm • http://www.conelrad.com/index.php • http://www.loti.com/fifities_history/surviving_nuclear_attack.htm

Part 2 References • American Association for the Advancement of Science • “Sputnik in Science Education” • http://www.nas.edu/sputnik/ruther1.htm • “The Sputnik Era: Why is this educational reform different from all other Reforms?” • http://www.nas.edu/sputnik/bybee1.htm • “What We Have Learned and Where We Are Headed: Lessons From The Sputnik Era • http://www.nas.edu/sputnik/deboer.htm

Part 2 References • Gutek, G. (2000). American Education 1945-2000: A history and commentary. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press Inc. • Good, H.G. (1962). A History of American Education, Second Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company. • McMahon, C. Civil Defense and Educational Goals. Elementary School Journal, Vol. 53, No. 8 (Apr., 1953), pp. 440-442 • The Nuclear Family retrieved from: http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/pmccray/20%20The%20Nuclear%20Family.pdf#search=%22atomic%20honeymooners%22

1950s Education: Civil Defense and the Push for Curriculum Reform