How to Write

1. How to Write Defne Apul and Jill Shalabi

2. Papers Summarized Johnson, T.M. 2008. Tips on how to write a paper. J Am Acad Dermatol 59:6, 1064-1069. Lee, S.S. 2008. How to write a paper: an editor’s tips. Liver International 28:4, 421-422. Mumpford, F. 1990. The universal recipe or how to get your manuscript accepted by persnickety editors. Clays and Clay Minerals 38:6, 631-636. Wong, T.S.W. 2008. How to write an award-winning paper. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice 134:1, 11-11.

3. Topics to be Covered • Why and how to write - general guidelines • Organization and content of a scientific paper • Tips on publishing • The review process

4. Why Write? • Writing cultivates • discipline • clear thinking • analytical ability • a sense of accomplishment • Educational gain may be greater for author than reader

5. But…. • Nothing is added to “science” and no benefits are realized unless your writing is published AND understood

6. General Guidelines for Writing • Know your subject in depth • Determine your best time to write • Establish and maintain a realistic timetable • The seven Cs content, correctness, consistency, clarity, colorfulness, conciseness, convincingness

7. 1. Title 2. Authorship 3. Abstract 4. Introduction 5. Methods and Materials 6. Results 7. Discussion 8. Conclusions (or Summary and Conclusions) 9.Acknowledgements 10. References “Recipe” for a scientific paper

8. What if my work is special? • For 99.99% of manuscripts, follow the recipe! • Possible additions are • Theory (after Introduction) • Regional Geology (before or after Methods and Materials) • Extended literature review (after Introduction)

9. Writing Order • Writing should proceed in the following order: 1. Methods and Materials 2. Results 3. Discussion 4. Introduction 5. Abstract, Title, References, Acknowledgements

10. Why Follow the Recipe? • Answers all relevant questions: • Introduction • What problem was solved? • Experimental • How was it solved? • Results • What did authors find? • Discussion • How were results interpreted? • Summary and Conclusions • What is significant about findings

11. Title • This is the first (and maybe only) chance to convince your audience to keep reading • Should describe only what will be in the paper

12. Abstract • Except for title, more people will read the abstract than any other part of paper • Abstracts should be written for non-experts • Should be the entire paper in condensed form

13. Authorship • Long lists of authors can be a red flag: credibility decreases after 5 or 6 authors • Should include only principle contributors - others can be recognized in “Acknowledgements”

14. Authorship (cont’d) • ALL authors are responsible for content • Everyone should have opportunity to review before submission/resubmission • First author is responsible for data collection, writing • Last author is most senior, established researcher • Middle authors listed in order of contribution

15. IntroductionWhat problem did the authors try to solve? • Write last • Write in present tense • Three paragraphs 1.brief background 2.importance of the problem and issues needing clarification 3.main objective(s) of paper

16. Methods and MaterialsHow was the problem solved? • Write in past tense in adequate detail to repeat the study • Note how data were evaluated • Statistical methods • Computer programs

17. ResultsWhat did authors find? • Write in past tense • Present facts in logical sequence • Include tables, graphs, illustrations • Avoid presenting irrelevant data • Do not present implications or interpretations yet

18. DiscussionHow were results interpreted? • The most important section of paper • Outline the main points that emerge from the results and build 1-2 paragraphs for each point • Avoid saying “further studies are required” • Use past tense

19. ConclusionWhat is significant about the findings? • Discuss importance • Don’t repeat discussion points – rather, explain why they are important • Re-examine the introduction to see whether objectives have been met

20. Acknowledgements • Be brief, but recognize those who • provided financial support, samples, analyses, technical assistance, • critiqued manuscript before submission, journal reviewers (not the editor)

21. References • Use exact style of journal (see authors guidelines or look at a recent issue) • List only works that have been published • In case of personal or written communication, cite in body of text

22. How to Publish • Choose the right journal and follow its submission instructions • Use a cover letter • include a statement about why information presented is new and/or significant • “sell” your paper • Suggest appropriate reviewers

23. How to Publish (cont’d) • Writing style should be simple and direct • Active voice is better than passive • The dog bit the cat vs. • The cat was bitten by the dog • Use spell check • Simplify figures • Avoid non-standard abbreviations • Avoid common statistical errors • ‘Significant” = statistically significant

24. How to Publish (cont’d) • Organization • a disorganized paper may reflect a disorganized experiment • prepare an extensive outline • or outline the paper after completion to reveal disorganization • Have an impartial person review it who will tell it like it is – don’t wait for journal reviewers or editors do that for you

25. Review Process ‘‘Your manuscript is both good and original, but the part that is good is not original, and the part that is original is not good.’’ -Samuel Johnson • Acceptance • Revision • Rejection

26. How to Respond • Respond to ALL reviewers’ comments and suggestions – only fight back on issues you strongly disagree with • If rejected, don’t simply submit as is to a different journal

27. Common Reasons for Rejection • Poorly written/poor style • Conclusions unjustified by data • Flawed or poor design methods • Faulty statistical analysis • Hypothesis not adequately tested

28. Ethical Issues • Data manipulation/falsification • Plagiarism and self-plagiarism • Conflicts of interest