Chapter 6

1. Chapter 6 Learning

2. Classical conditioning • Learning • relatively durable change in an organism’s behavior due to experience • Ivan Pavlov • Terminology • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Unconditioned Response (UCR) • Conditioned Response (CR)

9. Classical Conditioning: More Terminology • Trial = pairing of UCS and CS • Acquisition = initial stage in learning • Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space • 3 types of Classical Conditioning • Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together • Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together • Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented

10. Processes in Classical Conditioning • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • Stimulus Generalization • Discrimination • Higher-order conditioning

13. Behaviorism • John B. Watson • viewed psychology as objective science • generally agreed-upon consensus today • recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes • not universally accepted by all schools of thought today

14. Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques. Watson & Raynor with Little Albert

16. Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur today because of the existing ethical standards. Conditional Training: Little Albert

18. Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning • Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect • B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement • Operant chamber (Skinner Box) • Emission of response • Reinforcement contingencies • Cumulative recorder

21. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning • Acquisition • Shaping • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • Stimulus Control • Generalization • Discrimination

24. Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses • Delayed Reinforcement • Longer delay, slower conditioning • Primary Reinforcers • Satisfy biological needs • Secondary Reinforcers • Conditioned reinforcement

25. Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous reinforcement – faster extinction • Intermittent (partial) reinforcement – greater resistance to extinction • Ratio schedules (number) • Fixed (set) • Variable (random) • Interval schedules (time) • Fixed • Variable

27. Consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment • Increasing a response: • Positive (+) reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus (Give them something they want, ie a candy bar) • Negative (-) reinforcement = response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus (Take away something that is annoying/bothering/hurting them, ie nagging, seat belt tone) • Escape learning (open umbrella after you’re wet) • Avoidance learning (open umbrella before it rains) • Decreasing a response: • Positive Punishment = presentation of an aversive stimulus (give them something they do not want, ie detention, fine • Negative Punishment = removal of a rewarding stimulus (take away something they want, ie cell phone, car

28. Punishment

32. Problems with Punishment - (Spanking) • Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior • May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear • Likely to be temporary • May model aggression (Bandura Bobo doll experiment)

34. Biological Predispositions • John Garcia Conditioned taste aversions • Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli. • Internal stimuli—associate better with taste • External stimuli—associate better with pain • Biological preparedness

35. Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning • Biological Constraints on Conditioning • Instinctive Drift • Conditioned Taste Aversion • Preparedness and Phobias • Cognitive Influences on Conditioning • Signal relations – predicive value based on experience • Response-outcome relations – causal relationship • Cognitive processes play a large role in conditioning

36. Signal Relations Robert Rescorla conducted research around the cognitive element in conditioning • Environmental stimuli serve as signals • Some stimuli are better and more dependable signals than others • Rescorla manipulated signal relations in classical conditioning

37. Signal Relations (ii) CS-UCS relations influence whether a CS is a good signal A ‘good’ signal is one that follows accurate prediction of the UCS Example: • For one group of rats the CS (tone) and UCS (shock) are paired in 100% of the experimental trials • For another group the CS and UCS are paired in only 50% of the trials

38. The predictive value of CS • The two groups of rats have had an equal number of CS-UCS pairings • CS is a better signal or predictor of shock for the 100% CS-UCS group than for the 50% CS-UCS group • This difference must be due to the greater predictive power of the CS for the 100% group The predictive value of a CS is an influential factor governing classical conditioning

39. Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement • Response-outcome relations and reinforcement highlight the role of cognitive processes in conditioning • Reinforcement is not automatic when favourable consequences follow a response • Individuals actively reason out the relation between responses and the outcomes that follow • The response is more likely to be strengthened if the person thinks that the response caused the outcome

40. Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement (ii) • Animals also engage in causal reasoning They recognise causal relations between responses and outcomes • Identifying the contingencies among environmental events • Stimuli are viewed as signals that help animals minimize their aversive experiences and maximize their pleasant experiences

41. Observational Learning: Basic Processes • Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) • Observational learning • Vicarious conditioning • 4 key processes • attention • retention • reproduction • motivation • acquisition vs. performance • Latent learning • Cognitive maps • Learned helplessness

42. Observational Learning • Mirror Neurons • frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so • may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

43. 1) paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved 2) studying for a class that has surprise quizzes 3) ______________________ slot machines are based on this schedule 4) ________________________ trolling for fish in a lake in the summer 5) speed traps on highways 6) _______________________ selling a product door to door 7) getting the clothes out of the dryer once it buzzes 8) going up a staircase to reach a landing with a nice view 9) ______________________ doing 20 pushups to help stay fit

44. 10) _____ playing Bingo 11) ______getting a paycheck at the end of 2 weeks 12) _______drug testing 13) ________a strike in bowling 14) calling your mechanic to see if your car is fixed yet 15) — frequent flyer program where one gets a free flight after a specific number of miles flown

45. 16) _______________________ child screams and cries in store to get what he wants—every so often it works 17) ______________________ child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm 18) trying to find a parking spot in Metropolis with a meter that works 19) _______________________ wife is watching boxing match with husband- she receives a kiss at the end of every 3-minute round 20) ______________________ waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach