Radiation safety level 5

1. Radiation safetylevel 5 Frits Pleiter radiation safety - level 5

2. Contents • atomic and nuclear physics (1) • interaction with matter (3) • sources and x-ray equipment (2) • shielding (3) • detection (4) • radiobiology (6) • objective risk of radiation (6) • subjective risk acceptation (6) • quantities and units (5) • regulations (7) • practical health physics (8 - 10) • waste (11) radiation safety - level 5

3. Sources and x-ray equipmentdiscovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel In 1896 Henri Becquerel was experimenting with a uranium salt. At the end of the day, he used to put the uranium salt in a cupboard, next to some photographic material wrapped in brown paper. On a day he noticed that the photographic material had been exposed at a spot close to the uranium salt. radiation safety - level 5

4. Sources and x-ray equipmentdefinition of a sealed source radioactive substances that are • either embedded in or affixed to solid carrier material • or enclosed by surrounding material in such a way that the carrier material or the enclosure offers sufficient resistance to prevent, under normal conditions of use, any dispersion of the radioactive substances radiation safety - level 5

5. Sources and x-ray equipmentapplications of sealed sources measurements or investigations welds in pipelines 192Ir, 60Co 1 - 100 TBq thickness of steel 137Cs, 241Am 10 GBq thickness of cigarettes 90Sr / 90Y 40 MBq - 40 GBq filling heights 137Cs, 60Co 1 - 10 GBq chemical analysis x-ray fluorescence 241Am, 57Co 40 MBq - 40 GBq gas chromatography 63Ni 400 MBq medical applications brachytherapy 90Sr / 90Y, 125I 2 MBq brachytherapy 137Cs, 192Ir 50 - 500 MBq radiation safety - level 5

6. Sources and x-ray equipmentISO 2919 sealed sources may be tested for the following 5 properties • temperature and thermic shock • pressure • mechanical shock • vibration • puncture classification runs from 1 (not tested) till 6 (most stringent test) gas chromatography 63Ni C32211 industrial radiography 192Ir C43313 source with code C11111 has not been tested, but may be used radiation safety - level 5

7. Sources and x-ray equipmentapplications of open sources (bio)chemical analysis labelling 3H, 14C, 32P, 125I 1 MBq - 10 GBq medical diagnostics bone, heart 99mTc 500 MBq lungs 83Kr 600 MBq thyroid 123I 20 MBq tumor 111In 100 - 200 MBq PET 11C, 13N, 15O 500 MBq medical therapy hyperactive thyroid 131I 100 MBq - 1 GBq thyroid tumor 131I 2 - 6 GBq radiation safety - level 5

8. Sources and x-ray equipmentapplications of open sources angioscan using 99mTc cross-sections through the heart left: septum right: wall of left atrium and ventricle bottom: apex dark spot at the bottom points to a bad blood circulation in the apex radiation safety - level 5

9. Sources and x-ray equipmentdiscovery of X-rays Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen In 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discoverd a magic radiation that could penetrate solid objects. He called them x-rays, since they were a real mystery to him. If the emerging x-rays hit photographic material, a picture could be made of the inside such as the bones of a hand or the contents of a suitcase. radiation safety - level 5

10. Sources and x-ray equipmentx-ray tube negative cathode positive anode electron acceleration electron deceleration  (a lot of) heat bremsstrahlung characteristic x-ray radiation dose rate > 10 Gy/s possible ! scattered radiation intensity is about a factor of 1000 smaller radiation safety - level 5

11. Sources and x-ray equipmentx-ray spectrum • bremsstrahlung • characteristic x-ray radiation • radiation emerging from the tube • radiation after extra filtering radiation safety - level 5

12. Sources and x-ray equipmentx-ray spectrum intensity of bremsstrahlung increases with: increasing anode voltage increasing anode current increasing Z-value of anode material decreasing filter thickness intensity of characteristic x-ray radiation increases with: increasing anode voltage increasing anode current decreasing filter thickness energy of bremsstrahlung increases with: increasing anode voltage energy of characteristic x-ray radiation increases with: increasing Z-value of anode material radiation safety - level 5

13. Sources and x-ray equipmentapplications of X-rays bitewing radiation safety - level 5

14. Sources and x-ray equipmentapplications of x-rays CT-scan radiation safety - level 5

15. Sources and x-ray equipmentexamples of x-ray equipment radiation safety - level 5

16. Sources and x-ray equipmentneutrons neutron = neutral particle interaction with atomic nuclei maximum energy transfer in collision of particles with equal masses good shielding material: paraffin H2-C water H2-O concrete chemically bound crystal water bad shielding material: lead leave safety measures to a real expert radiation safety - level 5