Increasing Opportunities for Learning in Small Classes

1. Increasing Opportunities for Learning in Small Classes Maurice Galton Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge

2. Teaching in Small Classes • There is a perception gap: Teachers claim individuals given more attention but research shows more use of class instruction • There is a relatively small increase in interactions known to improve performance (open questions, sustained dialogue, increased feedback etc.) • No marked increase in pupil-pupil conversations

3. “A persistent stubborn continuity in the character of instruction” (Cuban 1984) • Teaching is not only a rational activity it is also an emotional one. • Unclear terminology: active learning, experiential learning, meaningful learning etc. • Theory not internalized so abandoned in the face of expediency • Too many external constraints

4. Pre and Post Literacy Hour Questions (KS2)

5. Teaching & Learning as Emotional Work Both teaching and learning involves the heart as well as the head. Pupils can worry about what the teacher or their peers might think of them if the fail to get the ‘right’ answer. Teachers also want the respect of colleagues, parents, pupils etc by maintaining an orderly classroom with ‘good’ results. Sometimes pupils bargain their good behaviour for easier work or for considerable guidance.

6. Three Views about Learning • As an outcome: enduring change in knowledge, skill etc. resulting from exposure to some experience. Short term gains in knowledge as opposed to development leading to understanding • As a process: transformation of information in solving cognitive problems • As an apprenticeship: doing in the community as a way of becoming a full member of that community

7. Teachers’ Perceptions of Learning • Internalizing knowledge, skill • working with rules and patterns • concrete v abstract representations • Understanding and organizing ideas • |Reasoning • understanding casual relationships • Planned systematic enquiry • Problem solving • Creativity • Value grounded thinking

8. Moseley et al’s (2003) Classification of thinking • 4 Families identified from 55 approaches: • Integrated models (7): Sternberg’s model of developing expertise; Demetriou’s model of mind, personality and self • Instructional models (24): Bloom’s revised taxonomy; Biggs & Collis’ Solo Taxonomy • Critical thinking models (11): Halpern’s thinking criteria and dispositions • Cognitive Structure models (13): Guilford, Piaget, Gardner etc.

9. Cognitive Skills for Learning (Moseley et al. 2003)

10. Watkins’ Three Ways of Learning • Learning as being taught (LBT): a process of knowledge acquisition • Learning as Individual Sense Making (LIS): making sense of experience (as in the accumulation of wealth, property etc.) • Learning as building knowledge with others (LBKO): meaning constructed through social activity, especially talk.

11. Failure to Learn

12. Some Principles for Learning and Teaching • We need working theories as with science where particle or wave theory of matter is applied to specific situations. It is not a question of teaching for transmission vs. understanding but of using both as appropriate. • The main determining factor will be the knowledge demands of the instructional task: whether procedural, conceptual or metacognitive.

13. Ideas About Learning

14. Ways of Knowing I

15. Teaching as Instruction • Provide an Advanced Organizer • Check what pupils know with quick, snappy question & answer session • Present new knowledge • Provide for practice which emphasises application • Extend practice by homework • Give feedback which is informative • Review new learning

16. Learning by Direct Instruction I The findings are most relevant when the object is to teach explicit procedures, concepts or a body of knowledge The findings are less relevant where skills to be taught cannot be broken down into explicit steps (Rosenshine 1987)

17. Mathematical procedures English grammar Scientific information Historical facts Using maps Practical skills Mathematical problem solving Extended writing Scientific investigations Discussing controversial social science topics Uses of Direct Instruction

18. Ways of Knowing II

19. Teaching as Enquiry Engaging in complex cognitive processes requires thoughtful discourse. Pupils are invited to make predictions, debate alternatives, etc. This can take place during interactive whole class teaching or during peer interaction in pairs or groups and should involve: • Placing the topic in the wider, meaningful context (big picture) • Using ‘open ended’ questions • Allowing suitable ‘wait times’ • Encouraging explanations or elaboration of answers.

20. Ways of Knowing III

21. Teaching as Scaffolding Helping pupils to learn how to ‘think for themselves’ requires temporary frameworks. They reduce ‘the degrees of freedom a child must manage in the task to prevent error rather than induce it’. (Bruner) Several scaffolds have been identified from the teacher effectiveness literature Providing models of appropriate response (e.g. model answers, demonstrations etc.) Providing prompts and feedback as in guided discovery Identifying potential problems from the outset

22. Teaching as Scaffolding As identified in the cognitive strategy research these latter scaffolds appear more effective in teaching higher cognitive skills. Rehearsing an argument (pupils explain to class/group in words their reasoning e.g.their answer to a maths problem)  Cue Cards ( as in writing frames ) Self-evaluation checklists (requires pupils to check through the process by which they reached a conclusion and to indicate how it might be improved

23. 8 Key Characteristics of an effective small class • Pupil Exploration usually preceded formal presentation. • Initially, tasks were structured to limit the range of alternatives pupils could explore. • There was a high proportion of pupil talk, much of it occurring between pupils. • The metaphors “teacher as a listener” and teacher as “guide on the side rather than sage on the stage” were characteristic.

24. 8 Key Characteristics of an effective small class • Pupils used a variety of means and media to communicate their ideas • pupils’ questions and comments often determined the focus of classroom discourse • the ethos encouraged pupils to offer speculative answers to challenging questions. • lessons often required pupils to reflect critically on the procedures and methods used

25. A Poem as a Final Thought Sent as a present from Annam A red Cockatoo Coloured like the peach blossom Speaking with the speech of men And they did what they always do to the learned and the eloquent They took a cage with stout bars And they shut it up inside (8th Century Chinese Poem)

26. Some Key References • Wood, D. (1998) How Children Think and Learn,Oxford: Blackwells • Moseley, D et al.(2003)Thinking Skill Frameworks for Post 16 Learners, An Evaluation Report to Learning Skills Development Council: University of Newcastle Upon Tyne. • Watkins, C (2003) Learning: A sense-makers guide, London: Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL).