memory

1. memory 159876123

2. What is memory • Memory can be defined as the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

3. How does memory work? • Memory works through three processes • 1) Encoding- the processing of information into the memory system – for example, by extracting meaning. • 2) storage- the retention of encoded information over time • 3) retrieval- the process of getting information out of memory storages

4. How does memory work? • We form memories in three stages: • 1) We first record to-be remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory or the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. • 2) From there, we process information into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal – short term memory can be defined as activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. • 3) Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval – long term memory can be defined as the relatively permanent, and limitless storehouse of the memory system. It can include knowledge, skills, and experience.

5. Working memory • Working memory concentrates on the active processing of information in the intermediate stage – working memory can take old memories to solve problems or may be faced with problems retrieving memories

6. How do we encode? • We encode using various ways. Some memories may be automatic through automatic processing which would be information that is well-learned. Other memories may take work in order to become stored. • Effortful processing requires attention and conscious effort • Rehearsal or the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

7. What we encode • Visual encoding – the encoding of picture images • Acoustic encoding – the encoding of sounds, especially the sound of words • Semantic encoding – the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

8. Encoding strategies • Imagery – mental pictures, a powerful aid to effortful processing • Mnemonic – memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery • Chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically • Iconic memories – a photographic, or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second – constant rehearsal could being into long-term memory

9. Stress and memory • Stronger emotional experiences make for stronger, more reliable memories. • After traumatic experiences such as a wartime ambush, a house fire, etc. could lead to the images being “burned into your memory.” These memories could alert us of potential dangers in the future.

10. Types of long term memory • Implicit memory: retention independent of conscious recollection • Explicit memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” • Implicit memories could be skills (motor and cognitive) and classical conditioning • Explicit memories could be facts like general knowledge and personally experienced events

11. The three r’s of retrieval • Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test • Recognition: a measure in memory in which the person only needs to identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. • Relearning: a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for the second time.

12. More key terms • Déjà vu: the eerie sense that “I’ve Experienced that before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. • Mood-congruent memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. • Amnesia: the loss of memory

13. Causes of forgetting • Absent mindedness – inattention to details (our mind is elsewhere when we lay down the car keys) • Transience – storage decay over time (after you part ways with former classmates) • Blocking – inaccessibility of stored information (seeing an actor in an old movie but not being able to place who it is)

14. Causes of distortion • Misattribution: confusing the source of information (putting words in someone els’s mouth or remembering a dream as an actual happening) • Suggestibility: the lingering effects of misinformation (a leading question – “Did Mr Jones touch your private parts” – later becomes a young child's false memory • Bias: belief-colored recollections (current feelings toward a friend may color our initial feelings)

15. Storage decay • Example: People 3 years out of taking a Spanish class who have not used Spanish since will be more likely to suffer storage decay

16. Other forms of forgetting • Proactive interference: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information • Retroactive interference: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information • Motivated forgetting • Repression: the basic defense mechanism that banishes consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. • Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event