Learning

1. Learning

2. A process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience

3. conditioning

4. The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

5. Classical conditioning

6. the basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response�producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response; also called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning

7. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

8. The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning

9. Unconditioned response (UCR)

10. The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

11. Conditioned stimulus (CS)

12. A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response

13. Conditioned response (CR)

14. The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus

15. Stimulus generalization

16. The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus, but to other, similar stimuli as well

17. Stimulus discrimination

18. The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus, but not to other, similar stimuli

19. Extinction (in classical conditioning)

20. The gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

21. Spontaneous recovery

22. The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus

23. Behaviorism

24. School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the scientific study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning

25. Placebo response

26. An individual�s psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug; also called placebo effect

27. Conditioned compensatory response (CCR)

28. A classically conditioned response in which stimuli that reliably precede the administration of a drug elicit a physiological reaction that counteracts, or is opposite to, the drug�s effect

29. Taste aversion

30. A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food

31. Biological preparedness

32. In learning theory, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

33. Law effect

34. Learning principle proposed by Thorndike that responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation, while responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation

35. Operant

36. Skinner�s term for an actively emitted (or voluntary) behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences

37. Operant conditioning

38. The basic learning process that involves changing the probability of a response being repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response; also called Skinnerian conditioning

39. Reinforcement

40. The occurrence of a stimulus or event following a response that increases the likelihood of that response being repeated

41. Positive reinforcement

42. A situation in which a response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations

43. Negative reinforcement

44. A situation in which a response results in the removal, avoidance, or escape from an aversive stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations

45. Primary reinforcer

46. A stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, or other biological necessities

47. Punishment by removal

48. A situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus; also called negative punishment

49. Discriminative stimulus

50. A specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular response is more likely to be reinforced, and in the absence of which a particular response is not reinforced

51. Operant chamber or Skinner box

52. The experimental apparatus invented by B.F. Skinner to study the relationship between environmental events and active behaviors

53. Shaping

54. The operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed

55. Continuous reinforcement

56. A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced

57. Partial reinforcement

58. A situation in which the occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer

59. Extinction (in operant conditioning)

60. The gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer

61. partial reinforcement effect

62. The phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement

63. Schedule of reinforcement

64. The delivery of a reinforcer according to a preset pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses

65. Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

66. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred

67. Variable-ratio (VR) schedule

68. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial

69. Fixed-interval (RI) schedule

70. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed

71. Variable-interval (VR) schedule

72. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trail

73. Behavior modification

74. The application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors

75. Cognitive map

76. Tolman�s term that describes the mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment

77. Latent learning

78. Term coined by Tolman to describe learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available

79. Learned helplessness

80. A phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior

81. Instinctive drift

82. The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that can interfere with the performance of an operantly conditioned response

83. Observational learning

84. Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others

85. Albert Bandara (b. 1925)

86. American psychologist who experimentally investigated observational learning, emphasizing the role of cognitive factors

87. John Garcia (b. 1917)

88. American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the learning of taste aversions in animals, a finding that challenged several basic assumptions of classical conditioning

89. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

90. Russian physiologist who first described the basic learning process of associating stimuli that is now called classical conditioning

91. Robert A. Rescorla (b. 1940)

92. American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning

93. Shepard Siegel (b. 1940)

94. Canadian psychologist who has extensively studied the role of classical conditioning and conditioned compensatory responses in the development of drug tolerance, drug withdrawal symptoms, and drug relapse

95. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

96. American psychologist who developed the operant conditioning model of learning; emphasized studying the relationship between environmental factors and observable actions; not mental processes, in trying to achieve a scientific explanation

97. Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)

98. American psychologist who was the first to experimentally study animal behavior and document how active behaviors are influenced by their consequences; postulated the law of effect

99. Edward C. Tolman (1898-1956)

100. American psychologist who used the terms cognitive map and latent learning to describe experimental findings that strongly suggested the cognitive factors play a role in animal learning

101. John B. Watson (1878-1958)

102. American psychologist who, in the early 1900s, founded behaviorism, an approach that emphasized the scientific study of outwardly observable behavior rather than subjective mental states