认知语言学的应用

1. 认知语言学的应用 苏晓军（苏州大学）

2. Applications of Cognitive Linguistics [ACL]Ed. by Kristiansen, Gitte / Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco J. • International Cognitive Linguistics Association (ICLA) • 自二十世纪八十年代以来，认知语言学逐渐发展成一场轰轰烈烈的运动。中国认知语言学会被誉为国内最具活力的学会。

3. 认知语言学的四项基本原则 • 第一项原则：语言能力不是独立的认知模块，而是人类普遍认知能力的具体表现。 • 第二项原则：强调语言的象征功能（symbolic function）。语法的各个层次，包括语音、词汇。句法等都可以看成是常规化的象征单位（ conventionalized symbolic units） 。

4. 认知语言学的四条根本原则 • 第三项基本原则：意义等于概念化。意义是主观的，包含了人类的体验，我们可以感受到人的身体以及身体周围的世界的存在。 • 第四项原则：认知语言学强调基于运用（ Usage-Based）的理念。认为语言表达的意义扎根于语言在社会上的运用这一富饶的土壤里。因此，和运用相关的问题诸如固化（entrenchment）就会在很大程度上影响意义。

5. 这思想基本原则为不同领域 的研究者提供了一个强大的语言研究的理论框架。

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7. 1 - Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives (2006)Ed. by Kristiansen, Gitte / Achard, Michel / Dirven, René / Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco J. √

8. An excellent source for the study of Applied Cognitive Linguistics, one of the most popular and fastest growing areas in Linguistics. • Authoritative and detailed survey articles by leading scholars in the field. • Accessible to a general audience, yet also characterized by a highly specific information value.

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10. 2 - Caballero, Rosario: Re-Viewing Space (2006) • Re-Viewing Space: Figurative Language in Architects´ Assessment of Built Space Series: Applications of Cognitive Linguistics [ACL] 2

11. This book describes and explores the linguistic metaphors used by architects to assess design solutions in building reviews, and the conceptual mappings that motivate them. The genre perspective adopted throughout the work offers a view of figurative language that considers its use in the discussion of architectural topics in a real communicative situation involving specific participants, clear rhetorical goals and recognisable textual artefacts. The book thus combines a genre approach to texts with a cognitive view of metaphor. It further aims to restore as the centre of attention the linguistic and textual aspects of metaphor as an instrument of both cognition and communication.

12. The theoretical implications of the applied cognitive approach to metaphor adopted in the book are twofold. First, a situated description of how metaphor is used in a particular genre provides rich detail about its rhetorical potential. The second important contribution made by this study is to provide a fuller account of image metaphor, a type of mapping which is very salient in this particular genre. The weight given to visual metaphors in architectural discourse allows a fuller consideration of the cognitive and communicative import of a class of metaphor often regarded as marginal or ad hoc in cognitive linguistics, and the book thus contributes to a better understanding of this phenomenon in the context of a genre characterised by its concern with the visual aspects of architectural design. In this sense, the empirical data offered by a particular research methodology contributes to theory formation, and will prove of interest to cognitive linguists as well as to discourse analysts or genre researchers.

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14. 3 - Ethnopragmatics (2006)Ed. by Goddard, Cliff • 民族语用学？ • Ethnopragmatics: Understanding Discourse in Cultural Context • Series: Applications of Cognitive Linguistics [ACL] 3

15. The studies in this volume show how speech practices can be understood from a culture-internal perspective, in terms of values, norms and beliefs of the speech communities concerned. Focusing on examples from many different cultural locations, the contributing authors ask not only: 'What is distinctive about these particular ways of speaking?', but also: 'Why - from their own point of view - do the people concerned speak in these particular ways? What sense does it make to them?'.

16. The ethnopragmatic approach stands in opposition to the culture-external universalist pragmatics represented by neo-Gricean pragmatics and politeness theory. Using "cultural scripts" and semantic explications - techniques developed over 20 years work in cross-cultural semantics by Anna Wierzbicka and colleagues - the authors examine a wide range of phenomena, including: speech acts, terms of address, phraseological patterns, jocular irony, facial expressions, interactional routines, discourse particles, expressive derivation, and emotionality. The authors and languages are: Anna Wierzbicka (English), Cliff Goddard (Australian English), Jock Wong (Singapore English), Zhengdao Ye (Chinese), Catherine Travis (Colombian Spanish), Rie Hasada (Japanese) and Felix Ameka (Ewe). Taken together, these studies demonstrate both the profound "cultural shaping" of speech practices, and the power and subtlety of new methods and techniques of a semantically grounded ethnopragmatics.

17. The book will appeal not only to linguists and anthropologists, but to all scholars and students with an interest in language, communication and culture.

18. "With this book, Cliff Goddard has overseen the production of a new milestone in the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) approach to meaning. [...] The approach is unique in research on pragmatics and culture - nowhere else do we find these kinds of explicit statements of cultural values in a descriptive metalanguage whose degree of formalism rivals that of predicate calculus, and whose units are as close to directly expressible in [any) natural language as we can get."N. J. Enfield in: Intercultural Pragmatics 4-3/2007

19. Ethnopragmatics: a new paradigm • For many years the dominant paradigm in linguistic pragmatics was strongly universalist: human communication was seen as largely governed by a rich and substantive inventory of universal principles. Variation between cultures was described in terms of local adjustments to and local construals of the presumed pan-human universals of communication. Different versions of this universalist paradigm are represented in works such as Grice (1975), Brown and Levinson (1978), Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper (1989), Sperber and Wilson (1995), among others. Universalist pragmatics necessarily imposes an “external” perspective on the description of the speech practices of any particular local culture, since the basic descriptive parameters have been decided in advance without reference to that local culture. Furthermore, these descriptive parameters – such as positive and negative politeness, the maxims of quality and quantity, “relevance”, collectivism and individualism, etc. – are of such an abstract and technical nature they would be unrecognisable to the people of the culture being described. At the same time, universalist pragmatics carries with it the assumption that local variations are somehow minor when compared with the grand groundplan of “human” communication.

20. Ethnopragmatics: a new paradigm • Fortunately, concern with culture-internal accounts of speech practices and with the profound “cultural shaping” of speech practices has refused to go away over the long period of universalist dominance. It was kept alive by research trends such as the ethnography of communication (Hymes 1968; Bauman and Sherzer eds 1974; Gumperz and Hymes eds 1986), interactional sociolinguistics (Gumperz 1982), linguistic anthropology (cf. Duranti 1997), and the cross-cultural pragmatics of Anna Wierzbicka (1985, 2003a) and colleagues. In recent years, there are signs that the tide has been turning, as the weaknesses of the universalist paradigm, especially its ethnocentrism, terminological slipperiness and descriptive inadequacy, have attracted mounting criticism (Ochs Keenan 1976; Irvine 1979; Sohn 1983; Matsumoto 1988; Ide 1989; Wierzbicka 2003a; Janney and Arndt 1993; Clyne 1994: 176–201; Davis 1998). Nevertheless, the field of pragmatics as a whole still suffers from a remarkable degree of “culture blindness”.

21. Ethnopragmatics: a new paradigm • In sharp contrast, the studies in this volume start from the premise that speech practices are best understood from a culture-internal perspective. Focusing on examples from many different cultural locations, the contributing authors ask not only: “What is distinctive about these particular ways of speaking?”, but also: “Why – from their own point of view – do the people concerned speak in these particular ways? What sense does it make to them?” In addition to this common objective, the contributors share a common methodology based on two decades work in cross-linguistic semantics, and a common concern for grounding in linguistic evidence. Together, this three-fold combination – objective, methodology, and evidence base – constitutes a venture which is distinctive enough to warrant a new term: “ethnopragmatics” (cf. Goddard 2002a, 2002b, 2004a).

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23. 4 - Câmara Pereira, Francisco: Creativity and Artificial Intelligence (2007)√ • Creativity and Artificial Intelligence: A Conceptual Blending Approach • Series: Applications of Cognitive Linguistics [ACL] 4 √

24. Creativity and Artificial Intelligence: A Conceptual Blending Approach takes readers into a computationally plausible model of creativity. Inspired by a thorough analysis of work on creativity from the areas of philosophy, psychology, cognitive science, cognitive linguistics and artificial intelligence, the author deals with the various processes, principles and representations that lie underneath the act of creativity.

25. Focusing on Arthur Koestler's Bisociations (异类联想), which eventually lead to Turner and Fauconnier's conceptual blending framework, the book proposes a theoretical model that considers blends and their emergent structure as a fundamental cognitive mechanism. The author thus discusses the computational implementation of several aspects of conceptual blending theory, namely composition, completion, elaboration, frames and optimality constraints. Informal descriptions and examples are supplied to provide non-computer scientists as well as non-cognitive linguists with clear insights into these ideas. Several experiments are made, and their results are discussed, with particular emphasis on the validation of the creativity and conceptual blending aspects.

26. Written by a researcher with a background in artificial intelligence, the book is the result of several years of exploration and discussion from different theoretical perspectives. As a result, the book echoes some of the criticism made on conceptual blending and creativity in artificial intelligence, and thus proposes improvements in both areas, with the aim of being a constructive contribution to these very intriguing, yet appealing, research orientations.

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28. 5 - Cornillie, Bert: Evidentiality and Epistemic Modality in Spanish (Semi-)Auxiliaries (2007) • Evidentiality and Epistemic Modality in Spanish (Semi-)Auxiliaries: A Cognitive-Functional Approach

29. This volume presents a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the Spanish evidential semi-auxiliaries parecer and resultar, the modal constructions with amenazar and prometer, and the modal auxiliaries poder, deber and tener que. These verbs have never been considered together in a global approach that transcends the classical "verbal periphrases" model.

30. The book proposes a cognitive-functional account of evidentiality and modality in Spanish with special attention to subjectivity and grounding. The theoretical reflection relies on empirical evidence of two sorts: synchronic and diachronic corpus-analyses alternate with tests that measure the semantic and pragmatic compatibility of the evidential and epistemic constructions with specific sentences. Following the assumption that linguistic forms are determined by their meaning, the array of constructions that characterizes the different verbs justifies their grouping in three pairs of (semi-)auxiliaries: parecer vs resultar, amenazar vs prometer and poder vs deber/tener que. The distributional differences observed in the corpus are further shown to correlate with different degrees of grammaticalization.

31. Primarily intended for scholars working in the field of Spanish functional linguistics, the monograph is also relevant for grammaticalization studies and for cognitive-semantic research at large. Given its combined theoretical and applied character, the volume is also of interest to anyone concerned with syntactic processes, lexical semantics or the wider area of discourse analysis and pragmatics.

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33. 6 - Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary and Phraseology (2008)Ed. by Boers, Frank / Lindstromberg, Seth √

34. Mastering the vocabulary of a foreign language is one of the most daunting tasks that language learners face. The immensity of the task is underscored by the realization that it is not only single words but also numerous standardised phrases (idioms, collocations, etc.) that need to be acquired. There is thus a clear need for instructional methods that help learners tackle this task, and yet few proposals for vocabulary instruction have so far gone beyond techniques for rote-learning and familiar means of promoting of noticing. The reason for this is that vocabulary and phraseology have long been assumed arbitrary.

35. The volume offers a long-overdue alternative by exploring and exploiting the presence of linguistic 'motivation' - or, systematic non-arbitrariness - in the lexicon. The first half of the volume reports ample empirical evidence of the pedagogical effectiveness of presenting vocabulary to learners as non-arbitrary. The data reported indicate that the proposed instructional methods can benefit when both the nature of the target lexis and the basic cognitive orientations of particular learners are taken into account. The first half of the book mostly targets lexis that has already attracted a fair amount of attention from Cognitive Linguists in the past (e.g. phrasal verbs and figurative idioms). The second half broadens the scope considerably by revealing the non-arbitrariness of diverse other lexical patterns, including collocations and word partnerships generally. This is achieved by recognising some long-neglected dimensions of linguistic motivation - etymological and phonological motivation, in particular. Concrete suggestions are made for putting the non-arbitrary nature of words and phrases to good use in instructed language learning. 

36. The volume is therefore of interest not only to applied linguists and researchers in Second Language Acquisition/Foreign Language Teaching, but also to second and foreign language teaching professionals.

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38. 7 - Culture, Body, and Language (2008)Ed. by Sharifian, Farzad / Dirven, René / Yu, Ning / Niemeier, Susanne √ • Culture, Body, and Language: Conceptualizations of Internal Body Organs across Cultures and Languages

39. One of the central themes in cognitive linguistics is the uniquely human development of some higher potential called the "mind" and, more particularly, the intertwining of body and mind, which has come to be known as embodiment. Several books and volumes have explored this theme in length. However, the interaction between culture, body and language has not received the due attention that it deserves. Naturally, any serious exploration of the interface between body, language and culture would require an analytical tool that would capture the ways in which different cultural groups conceptualize their feelings, thinking, and other experiences in relation to body and language. A well-established notion that appears to be promising in this direction is that of cultural models, constituting the building blocks of a group's cultural cognition.

40. The volume results from an attempt to bring together a group of scholars from various language backgrounds to make a collective attempt to explore the relationship between body, language and culture by focusing on conceptualizations of the heart and other internal body organs across a number of languages. The general aim of this venture is to explore (a) the ways in which internal body organs have been employed in different languages to conceptualize human experiences such as emotions and/or workings of the mind, and (b) the cultural models that appear to account for the observed similarities as well as differences of the various conceptualizations of internal body organs. The volume as a whole engages not only with linguistic analyses of terms that refer to internal body organs across different languages but also with the origin of the cultural models that are associated with internal body organs in different cultural systems, such as ethnomedical and religious traditions. Some contributions also discuss their findings in relations to some philosophical doctrines that have addressed the relationship between mind, body, and language, such as that of Descartes.

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42. 8 - Wolf, Hans-Georg / Polzenhagen, Frank: World Englishes (2009)√ • World Englishes: A Cognitive Sociolinguistic Approach • Series: Applications of Cognitive Linguistics [ACL] 8

43. The book is the first of its kind to establish Cognitive Linguistics as a research paradigm within the field of world Englishes. • The authors survey the main tenets of both areas of linguistic enquiry and suggest that the theoretical and methodological apparatus developed both within Cognitive Linguistics generally and within its novel sub-discipline Cognitive Sociolinguistics can overcome certain limitations inherent in traditional approaches to cultural variation in language. They present a case study of the linguistic realization of the cultural model of community in African English as an exemplar for the investigation of cultural models in other varieties of English. Corpus-linguistic methods are combined with conceptual metaphor analysis and blending theory to elucidate a vast network of conceptualizations salient to speakers of African English.

44. The findings, based on computer corpora and a range of additional sources, are discussed against the background of work in anthropology, religious studies, and political science. The book also reflects on the role of English in intercultural communication and concludes with a comparison of Cognitive Linguistics and pragmatic functionalism, placing the former in the wider framework of a hermeneutic philosophy that stresses dialogic understanding.

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46. 9 - Cognitive Approaches to Pedagogical Grammar (2008)Ed. by De Knop, Sabine / De Rycker, Teun

47. In the last 25 years foreign language teaching has been able to increase its efficiency through an orientation towards authentic language materials, pragmatic language functions and interactive learning methods. However, so far foreign language teaching has lacked a sufficiently strong theoretical framework to support the teaching of language in all its aspects. Arguably, such a linguistic theory has to be usage-based and cognition-oriented. Since cognitive linguistics - and especially cognitive grammar - is concerned with conceptual issues against the larger background of human cognition and because it is based on actual language use, it becomes a powerful tool for dealing adequately with the main issues of a pedagogical grammar. A pedagogical grammar aims at providing all the essential linguistic patterns considered relevant by theoretical and descriptive linguistics for the preparation of teaching materials and their exploitation in foreign language instruction.

48. The volume contains thirteen contributions organized into three parts. In Part 1 Langacker, Taylor and Broccias introduce the basic grammar concepts, rules and models that are available in cognitive linguistics and which are directly relevant to the construction of a pedagogical grammar. Meunier, on the other hand, describes how such a grammar could benefit from corpus linguistics. Part 2 looks at some cognitive tools and conceptual errors with contributions by Danesi and Maldonado and also reconsiders contrastive analysis in the papers by Ruiz de Mendoza and Valenzuela & Rojo. Part 3, finally, discusses language-specific constraints on a number of linguistic phenomena such as the construal of motion events (papers by Cadierno and De Knop & Dirven), distinctions in the tense-aspect system (papers by Niemeier & Reif and Schmiedtová & Flecken), and voice (Chen & Oller).

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50. 10 - Cognitive Poetics (2009)Ed. by Brône, Geert / Vandaele, Jeroen √ • Cognitive Poetics: Goals, Gains and Gaps Series: Applications of Cognitive Linguistics [ACL] 10