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Chapter 4 Syntax

Chapter 4 Syntax. Part IV. Heads ( 核心詞 )and complements. p. 140 The head of a phrase is the word whose lexical category defines the type of the phrase. Every phrase has a head that has the same syntactic category as the phrase.

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Chapter 4 Syntax

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  1. Chapter 4 Syntax Part IV

  2. Heads (核心詞)and complements p. 140 • The head of a phrase is the word whose lexical category defines the type of the phrase. Every phrase has a head that has the same syntactic category as the phrase. • The complement of the head is the other constituents in a phrase that complete its meaning. (See examples on p. 140.)

  3. Every VP contains a Verb. found a puppy • Every NP contains a Noun. my new house • Every PP contains a Preposition. in my new house

  4. More examples • VP: found the puppy • NP: the destruction of Rome a picture of Mary a person worthy of praise a boy who pitched a perfect game • PP: in the garden

  5. Selection pp. 140-141 Whether a verb takes a complement or not depends on the properties of the verb. Verbs (transitive or intransitive) select different kinds of complements. Examples (p. 141): 1. Put and give take both an NP and a PP complement: She put the milk in the refrigerator. 2. Sleep can not take an NP complement: Michael slept. 3. Think selects a sentence complement, often preceded by a complementizer that: I think that Sam won the race. See other examples on p. 141.

  6. C-selection (詞類選擇) p. 542 C-selection: The classifying of verbs and other lexical items in terms of the syntactic category of the complements that they accept; sometimes called “subcategorization” Example: The verbfind c-selectsa noun phrase complement. p. 141 The information about the complement types selected by particular verbs and other lexical items is called c-selection or subcategorization and is included in the lexical entry of item in our mental lexicon. ** “C” stands for “categorial”.

  7. More examples p. 141 Verbs select different kinds of complements: (a)Put selects both an NP and a PP. Sam putthe milkin the refrigerator. (b)Sleepcan not take an NP complement. * Michael slept a fish. (c)Thinkselects a sentence as complement. I thinkthat Sam won the race. (d) Tell selects an NP and an S as complement. I told Samthat Michael was on his bicycle.

  8. (e)Feel selects either an AdjP or an S. They felt strong as oxen. They feel that they can win. (f)Beliefselects either a PP or an S. There was a beliefin freedom of speech. Everybody learns the beliefthat freedom of speech is a basic right. (g) Tiredselects a PP. I am tiredof stale sandwiches. (h)Sympathy selects a PP. They showed their sympathyfor the victims.

  9. S-selection (語意選擇) p. 561 S-selection: The classifying of verbs and other lexical items in terms of the semantic category of the head and the complements that they accept. Example: The verbfind s-selectsan animate subject and a concrete NP complement. ** “S” stands for “semantic”.

  10. Examples (a) Murder requires its subject and object to be human. (b) Drink requires its subject to be animate and its object liquid. (c) Like/hate selects animate subjects. ! The rock murdered the man. ! The beer drank the student. ! The tree liked the boy.

  11. p. 142 The well-formedness of a phrase depends on at least two factors: • Whether the phrase conforms to the phrase structure requirements, and • Whether the phrase conforms to the selectional requirements of the head.

  12. What heads the sentence? pp. 142-143 The category Aux is a natural category to head S. Reasons: (1) A sentence is about a situation or state of affairs that occurs at some point in time. (2) Aux specifies a time frame for the sentence, whether the situation described by the sentence will take place, already took place, or is taking place now.

  13. S NP VP The boy Aux VP is eating may eat has eaten

  14. In the tree above, VP is the complement to Aux. The selectional relationship: 1. The Aux be(is) takes a progressive form (V-ing) of the verb. 2. The Aux has selects a past participle (-en) form of the verb. 3. The modal Aux(may) selects the infinitival form (不定詞; the root form; 動詞原形) of the verb

  15. X-bar theory p. 565 Definition: a universal schema specifying that the internal organization of all phrasal categories can be broken into three levels, e.g., NP, N’, and N

  16. p. 143 The basic X-bar schema is as follows: XP specifier X’ X (head) complement This schema says that an XP consists of a specifier and an X’ and that any X’ consists of an X and a complement.

  17. p. 143 specifier: an optional modifier Examples: 1. An NP specifier: a determiner 2. A VP specifier: an adverb (never, often) 3. An AdjP specifier: a degree word (very, quite)

  18. A new rule VP → Aux VP (This allows recursion.) VP Aux VP Aux VP Aux VP

  19. The schema above represents the following sentences: 1. The child may be sleeping. 2. The dog has been barking. 3. The bird must have been flying.

  20. When a sentence does not have a modal, there is a time reference for it. S NP VP N’ Aux VP N Past kicked the ball Sam

  21. The matchmaker function of syntactic rules p. 145 Aux specifies the agreement features of the subject. Examples: 1. If the subject is we, Aux carries the features first-person plural. 2. If the subject is he or she, Aux carries the features third-person singular.

  22. Structural ambiguities An ambiguous sentence has more than one structure tree, each corresponding to a different meaning. See the example on p. 146: The boy saw the man with the telescope.

  23. A new version of the PS rules in English p. 147 1. S → NP VP 2. NP → Det N’ 3. NP → N’ 4. NP → NP’s N’ 5. NP → NP PP 6. N’ → Adj N’ 7. N’ → N 8. VP → V

  24. 9. VP → V NP 10. VP → V CP 11. VP → Aux VP 12. VP → VP PP 13. PP → P NP 14. CP → C S

  25. More phrase structure trees (pp. 148-149)The dog completely destroyed the house. S NP VP Det N’ Adv VP The N completely V NP dog destroyed Det N’ the N house

  26. The dog destroyed the house yesterday. S NP VP Det N’ VP Adv The N V NP yesterday dog destroyed Det N’ the N house

  27. Probably the dog has fleas. (** Probably as sentential modifier) S Adv S Probably NP VP Det N’ V NP the N has N’ dog N fleas

  28. Coordinate structure (pp. 148-149) the dog and the cat NP NP1 CoordP Det N’ Coord NP2 The N and Det N’ dog the N cat

  29. Michael writes poetry and surfs. S NP VP N’ VP1 CoordP N V NP Coord VP2 Michael writes N’ and V N surfs poetry

  30. Main verb be(The main verb be acts like the modal and the auxiliaries be and have.) The cat is coy. TP NP T’ Det N’ T AdjP the N is Adj cat coy

  31. Draw PS trees for: 1. The cat is a feline. 2. The cat is in the tree.

  32. More new rules (pp. 148-149) For PPT pp. 25-27: 1. S → Adv S 2. VP → Adv VP 3. VP → VP Adv For PPT pp. 28-29: 1. NP → NP CoordP 2. CoordP → Coord NP For PPT pp. 30: 1.TP→ NP T’ 2. T’ → T XP (where XP = AdjP, PP, NP)

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