PHONOLOGY

1. PHONOLOGY ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS GUNADARMA UNIVERSITY

2. REFERENCES: Peter Roach, ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY, Cambridge University Claire-A. Forel & Genoveva Puskás, PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY, Reader for First Year English Linguistics, University of Geneva Philip Carr, PHONOLOGY, The Mac Millan Ltd, London, 1993. Victoria Fromkin et. Al, AN INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE, Ninth Edition, 2001

4. The Most Common Processes: Assimilation Dissimilation Epenthesis Deletion Metathesis Vowel reduction

5. Assimilation: Two sounds becoming more alike Regressive Assimilation Assimilation in which a sound influences the preceding segment. E.g. indefinite, impossible, incomplete Progressive Assimilation Assimilation in which a sound influences the following segment. E.g. books, bags

6. [-z] or [-s] Bananas Grapes Lemons Cookies Cakes Tarts Potatoes Carrots • [-z] • [-s] • [-z] • [-z] • [-s] • [-s] • [-z] • [-s]

7. [-d], [-t], or [-id] Studied Kicked Eliminated Erased Looked Typed Measured Surrounded • [-d] • [-t] • [-id] • [-d] • [-t] • [-t] • [-d] • [-id]

8. Dissimilation:Two Sounds Becoming Less Alike Fifths: [f  f  s]  [f  f t s] Three fricatives  fricative+stop+fricative

9. Epenthesis A process that inserts a segment into a particular environment. For example: (in careful speech) something is pronounced [smp] instead of [sm] somepthing something

10. Deletion A process that removes a segment from certain phonetic context. In English, a schwa [] is often deleted when the next vowel in the word is stressed. suppose: [spts]  [spts]

11. Metathesis A process that reorders a sequence of segments For example: Brid (Old English)  Bird (Modern English)

12. Vowel Reduction The articulation of a vowel moves to a more central position when the vowel is unstressed. For example: considerate vs. consideration

13. Suprasegmental Sounds: The term suprasegmental was invented to refer to aspects of sound such as intonation that did not seem to be properties of individual segments (i.e. the vowels and consonants of which speech is composed). The term has tended to be used predominantly by American writers, and much British work has preferred to use the term prosodic instead. There has never been full agreement about how many suprasegmental features are to be found in speech, but pitch, loudness, tempo, rhythm, intonation and stress are the most commonly mentioned ones.

14. MINIMAL PAIR Two (or more) words that differ only by a single sound in the same position and that have different meanings m/n: [s^ m] ‘sum’ vs. [s^ n] ‘sun’ k/g: [kIl] ‘kill’ vs. [gIl] ‘gill’ s/S: [mesi] ‘messy’ vs. [me__i] ‘meshy’ i/I/e: [fil] ‘feel’ vs. [fIl] ‘fill’ vs. [fel] ‘fell’

15. MINIMAL PAIR: While whole sounds can contrast, so can parts of sounds (i.e., features): Voicing: [tIl] ‘till’ vs. [dIl] ‘dill’ Place: [s ^m] ‘sum’ vs. [s^ __] ‘sung’ Manner: [m__s] ‘mess’ vs. [m___t] ‘met’ Sounds in a minimal pair… …contrast …are unpredictable (i.e., must be learned) …belong to different phonemes

16. Phoneme vs Allophone Phoneme: A minimal unit of sound that serves to distinguish meaning between words May be composed of a set of sounds (‘allophones’) that are considered by native speakers to be the ‘same’ sound Allophone: the different phonetic realizations of a phoneme

17. ALLOPHONE: top stop little kitten [t__p] [stap] [lItl] [kitn] / t / [th][t][t] [t] phoneme  allophones 

18. Contrastive distribution Contrastive distribution: When sounds can occur in the exact same phonetic environment (thereby forming a minimal pair), e.g., Initial: [su_] ‘sue’, [zu_] ‘zoo’ Medial: [b ^_i__] ‘bussing’, [b ^zI___] ‘buzzing’ Final: [kloUs] ‘close’, [kloU___] ‘clothe’

19. Distribution Complementary distribution:When two (or more) phonetically similar sounds never occur in exactly the same environment, but in complementary or mutually-exclusive environments p/ph: [sp__t] ‘spat’ [ph__t] ‘pat’ [spul] ‘spool’ [p_ul] ‘pool’ [spi_k] ‘speak’ [p_i_k] ‘peak’

20. COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION: Sounds in complementary distribution… …are allophones of a single phoneme …do not occur in minimal pairs …are noncontrastive …are predictable (based on environment)

21. Real-life analogy of complementary distribution Do you ever see Superman and Clark Kent in the same environment? Two people or one person?

22. Complementary distribution Superman is always found in the environment of an emergency.

23. Complementary Distribution: No Emergency Clark Kent is seen in the environment when there is no emergency.

24. Complementary distribution = Clark Kent and Superman are different identities of the same person.

25. ALLOPHONES: Just as allophones are different forms of the same phoneme, Clark Kent and Superman are different realizations of the same person. /p/ [ph][p] /Superman/ [Clark Kent] [Superman]

26. Features of consonants

27. The sonority scales of english phonemes

28. Sonority and Syllables • [blænd] works well, too. [æ] [l] [n] [b] [d] high sonority low sonority

29. Sonority and Syllables [æ] [l] [n] [b] [d] sonority peak high sonority low sonority

30. Sonority and Syllables [æ] [l] [n] [b] [d] sonority peak high sonority low sonority

31. Sonority and Syllables • The sonority peak forms the nucleus of the syllable. [æ] [l] [n] [b] [d] nucleus high sonority low sonority

32. Sonority and Syllables • The sonority peak forms the nucleus of the syllable. • The sounds that precede the nucleus form the syllable onset. [æ] [l] [n] [b] [d] onset high sonority low sonority

33. Sonority and Syllables • The sonority peak forms the nucleus of the syllable. • The sounds that precede the nucleus form the syllable onset. • The sounds that follow the nucleus form the syllable coda. [æ] [l] [n] [b] [d] coda high sonority low sonority

34. The sonority peak forms the nucleus of the syllable. • The sounds that precede the nucleus form the syllable onset. • The sounds that follow the nucleus form the syllable coda. • Together, the nucleus and coda form the syllable rhyme. [æ] [l] [n] [b] [d] rhyme high sonority low sonority

35. Syllable Formation • In order to figure out how to organize a word into syllables, first identify the syllable nuclei • = vowels and any syllabic consonants • Example: “America”     N N N N O O O [ʌ m ɛ r ɪ k ʌ] • Then identify any potential onsets to each syllable • = consonants preceding the nuclei

36. Sonority and Syllables

37. Sonority and Syllables

38. Software to analyze the syllables / phonemes:

44. Structure of syllables:

45. CLUSTER:

46. Connected speech 1. Intra-syllabic Level The word bank is not pronounced */b_nk/ but /b___k/ because in the termination cluster nasal+plosive, the nasal adopts the place of articulation of the plosive, i.e. it becomes velar. This phenomenon is no longer perceived as regressive assimilation.

47. Connected speech 2. Inter-morphemic Level The morpheme of the plural spelled as -slike in cats and in dogs appears as two distinct phonemes /s/ and /z/ due to progressive assimilation. This suffix is voiceless [s] when it is preceded by a voiceless consonant and voiced [z] when preceded by a voiced consonant: a. /k__t+s/ b. /d__g+z/

48. Connected speech 3. Between Words Some times, assimilation, especially between words, is less standardized and yet the phenomenon remains quite powerful. Compare a. to b.in the following examples: a. /______/ hit you b. /______/ hit me

49. Connected speech 4. Linking r We will now look at a marginal phenomenon called linking “r”. We have seen that in Received Pronunciation of British English the phoneme /r/ never occurs in syllable-final position. However, this /r/ has not completely disappeared insuch a position. For instance, before a vowel, this final /r/is often pronounced, as in /____egz/ four eggs.

50. Connected speech Received Pronunciation tend to insert an /r/ between vowels even where there has never been a /r/. This leads them to pronounce “Anna and John” as /______________/