20 th Century U.S. History Since World War II

1. 20th Century U.S. History Since World War II Unit 7 – Ford Administration (1974-1977)

2. Gerald R. Ford • (1974-1977)

3. Ford Administration • Gerald Ford was sworn in as President on August 9, 1974 • He was the first president to not be elected to either the Vice Presidency or the Presidency • He had replaced Spiro Agnew as VP when the latter pleaded no contest to criminal charges of tax evasion and money laundering in 1973 • When he took office, he appointed Nelson D. Rockefeller as his Vice President • Rockefeller was a liberal Republican and former Governor of New York

4. Ford Administration • A number of Ford’s appointments played huge roles in the government over the next thirty years • Ford also appointed George H.W. Bush as his liaison to China • Bush was later promoted to Director of the CIA in 1975 • He was president from 1989-1993 • His Chief of Staff was Donald Rumsfeld • He was later promoted in 1975 to Secretary of Defense • He held the position again under George W. Bush • His second Chief of Staff was Richard Cheney • He was Secretary of Defense during most of the George H.W. Bush Administration • He became Vice President under George W. Bush

5. The Pardon • On September 8, 1974, Ford shocked the nation by pardoning Nixon with Proclamation 4311 • It stated that Ford “have granted and by these presents do grant a full, free, and absolute pardon unto Richard Nixon for all offenses against the United States which he, Richard Nixon, has committed or may have committed or taken part in during the period from January 20, 1969 through August 9, 1974.” • Ford believed the pardon was in the best interest of the country • Critics said the pardon was a “corrupt bargain” with Nixon • Nixon would resign and get off easy while Ford would gain the presidency

6. The Pardon • In his book Shadow, Bob Woodward claimed that Ford was given three options by Chief of Staff Alexander Haig before Nixon resigned • Nixon could first pardon himself and then resign • Nixon could pardon his aides and then resign • Nixon would resign on the condition that Ford would pardon him • Ford believed he was following legal precedence • The Supreme Court case Burdick v. U.S. (1915) stated that when a person accepts a pardon it is an “admission of guilt”

7. The Pardon • Still, not everyone was happy with the pardon • A number of staff members resigned in protest • Many believe that the pardon eliminated any chance of Ford winning in the 1976 election • This is including Ford himself • At the same time Ford announced the pardon, he also announced the creation of a Presidential Clemency Board • The purpose was to grant clemency to those who had left the country to avoid the draft

8. Ford’s Pardon of Nixon

9. 1974 Mid-Term Elections • One thing that was greatly affected by the pardon was the 1974 mid-term Congressional Elections • They occurred only three months after Nixon’s resignation • Democrats won 49 seats in the House and got a 2/3 majority to override presidential vetoes • They went on to veto 60 bills in the next two years • In the Senate, the Democrats had 60 seats • This meant that for most of his short administration, Ford had to deal with a very hostile Congress

10. Whip Inflation Now buttons

11. Inflation and Unemployment • On the domestic front, Ford had to deal with an increasing inflation and unemployment • On October 8, 1974, Ford gave a speech called “Whip Inflation Now” • The goal was to control inflation by regulating production and sales • This included increase the amount of food produced by farmers to lower prices • Another proposal was reduce America’s dependency on foreign oil by using “cleaner coal processes and nuclear fuel” • Finally, the “enforcement of laws against price fixing and bid rigging”

12. Inflation and Unemployment • Many saw the WIN campaign just as a political and ineffective gimmick • In 1974, inflation was at 11% • Ford finally introduced a tight money policy • There was a major reduction in federal spending • This led to the most severe recession since the Great Depression • Another problem Ford had to face was unemployment • When he took office in August 1974, unemployment was at 5.5%

13. Inflation and Unemployment • By January 1975, unemployment was up to 8.1% • By that May, it hit 9.0% • As inflation and unemployment both continued to rise and the GNP declined, Congress pushed for an anti-recession spending program • Ford had to endorse a major tax cut along with higher unemployment benefits • The Comprehensive Employment and Training Act was passed • This provided temporary government or not-for-profit jobs for skilled workers with contracts from 12-24 months

14. William Colby Director of CIA • (1973-1976)

15. “Family Jewels” • After the Watergate Scandal broke, the CIA began investigating itself for any illegal activities • This was because both E. Howard Hunt and James McCord were both former members of the CIA • On May 9, 1973, James R. Schlesinger, Director of the CIA, put together a report known as the “Family Jewels” • It was a listing of all potentially illegal actions made by the CIA since the 1950s • The 693 report was given to William Colby when he took office

16. “Family Jewels” • Details of the report were leaked to Seymour Hersh, a reporter for the New York Times • In December 1974, Hersh’s article appeared on the front page accusing the CIA of “violating its charter” • It also stated that it “conducted a massive, illegal domestic intelligence operation during the Nixon Administration against the antiwar movement and other dissident groups…” • The full report was made public in June 2007 • The CIA spied on numerous U.S. citizens, especially journalists • It also planned numerous assassination attempts against Castro

17. “Family Jewels” • Congress responded by passing the Hughes-Ryan Act on December 22, 1974 • It required the president to notify Congress of any covert actions • Congress also would not provide funding for any covert operations unless the president can prove how it is beneficial for national security • In 1975, the Church Committee was created to investigate illegal actions by both the CIA and FBI • It was headed by Idaho Senator Frank Church • The Committee recommend oversight of the CIA which led to the creation of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

18. Ford and Brezhnev (November 23, 1974)

19. Continued Détente • Ford continued on Nixon’s policy of détente with the Soviet Union • In November 1974, he met with Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev in Vladivostok • They signed a joint communiqué on the limitation of strategic offensive arms • Specifically Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicles (MIRVs), which allowed one nuclear missile to hit multiple targets • It also included a promise to negotiate a new Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II)

20. Continued Détente • On August 1, 1975, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords • It was signed by almost all European countries as well as Canada • The purpose was to improve relations between the West and the Communist Bloc by respecting territorial integrity of countries and non-intervention in the internal affairs of countries • Part of this also included a push for human rights, freedom of conscience, and self-determination • The Accords were criticized by Congress • They said that Ford was accepting the annexation of a number of countries by the Soviets

21. Continued Détente • Ford also promoted the joint Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in the summer of 1975 • It was a joint venture between the U.S. and the Soviets • It was also the last mission for the Apollo program • Ford also travelled to China in December 1975 • It was to continue normalizing relations with China • However, at the same time, he was continuing to recognize the Republic of China on Taiwan

22. Fall of Saigon (April 30, 1975)

23. Trouble in Southeast Asia • Ford was not so successful with his foreign policy in southeast Asia • He was unable to get Congressional funding for aiding the South Vietnamese military • The U.S. military participated in Operation Frequent Wind on April 29, 1975 • This was to help evacuate as many refugees from South Vietnam as possible • Helicopters and busses were used to transfer people from the U.S. embassy in Saigon to Tan Son Nhut

24. Trouble in Southeast Asia • The city of Saigon fell to North Vietnamese troops on April 30, 1975 • In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge took the capital city of Phnom Penh on April 17, 1975 • It created a new government known as the Democratic Kampuchea • Its leader was General Secretary Pol Pot • On May 12, 1975, the Khmer Rouge seized the container ship S.S. Maygüez • As the U.S. government did not recognize the Democratic Kampuchea, Ford ordered a military response against this “piracy”

25. Trouble in Southeast Asia • The ship’s crew was released but the news did not reach the marines before the attack • During the course of the attack, 41 troops were killed and another 50 wounded • 60 Khmer Rouge forces were killed as well • Ford asked Congress for $222 million in foreign aid to free Cambodia from the Khmer Rouge • Congress refused • The Khmer Rouge participated in mass genocide over the next four years • Estimates go from 1.4 million to 2.2 million dead

26. Ford–Carter Debate (September 23, 1976)

27. Election of 1976 • Ford was not an automatic shoe-in for the Republican nomination in 1976 • His main challenger was former California governor Ronald Reagan • Reagan was a conservative and criticized Ford’s positions on détente with the Soviet Union • However, he did win the nomination on the first vote • He selected Senator Robert Dole of Kansas as his running mate • Democrats picked Jimmy Carter as their candidate • The former governor of Georgia was a relative unknown when the primaries started • He chose liberal Senator Walter Mondale of Minnesota as his running mate

28. Election of 1976 • Even with the problems associated with his administration, he did have some positive public relations • Specifically, he was the center of the country’s bicentennial celebrations during the summer of 1976 • Carter’s position was that he was “untainted” by Washington politics • This was slap to Ford being Vice President during the Watergate Scandal • Carter also played upon the negative public response of Ford’s pardon of Nixon

29. Election of 1976 • Ford actually had a huge lead in the campaign until the second debate on October 6, 1976 • He said that “there is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford administration” • Many, especially conservatives, were already critical of Ford’s relations with the Soviets; this gave fuel to their opposition • On November 2nd, Carter won the election • Carter received 40.8 million votes which gave him 23 states and a total of 297 electoral votes • Ford received 39.1 million which gave him 27 states but only a total of 240 electoral votes • One “faithless elector” from Washington gave his vote to Reagan instead of Ford

30. 1976 Election Results