Lexical Semantics. An Introduction

1. Lexical Semantics. An Introduction Boris Iomdin Russian Language Institute,Russian Academy of Sciences iomdin@ruslang.ru

2. Lecture 5. Plan • Sentence and utterance • Proposition and judgment • Propositional attitudes (modal frames) • Dictum and modus • Types of questions • Types of anomalous sentences • Presupposition and assertion • Communicative structure • Presuppositions and modal frames in explications

3. De Saussure: language and speech • Human language (system of signs that express ideas) may be divided into 2 components: • Langue (the abstract system of language) • Parole (individual acts of speech using this system).

4. Sense and meaning • Frege: Sinn / Bedeutung • Sense is more abstract, meaning (=reference) is linked to a certain referent • the capital of Czechoslovakia: clear sense, but no meaning

5. Sentence and utterance • Sentences are units of language (langue) and have a sense • Utterances are units of speech (parole) and have a meaning • The sentence sense is an abstract entity, a property of the language itself • The utterance meaning is a meaning that the Hearers assign to it

6. Proposition and judgment • A judgment (assertion) is an affirmative statement: • A 6-year-old boy ascended to the skies aboard a balloon. • A proposition is the content of various utterances: • A 6-year-old boy ascended to the skies aboard a balloon! • Did a 6-year-old boy ascend to the skies aboard a balloon? • The 6-year-old boy did not ascend to the skies aboard a balloon. • It was the 6-year-old boy who ascended to the skies aboard a balloon. • The boy who ascended to the skies aboard a balloon was six years old. • …

7. Propositional attitude • The sense of a sentence may contain an objective constant (proposition) and a subjective variable (propositional attitude ≈ modal frame) • A propositional attitude is a mental state connecting the speaker to his proposition • Many types of propositional attitudes: • Knowing • Believing • Saying • Desiring • …

8. Dictum and modus Ch. Bally, Le language et la vie, 1925 • Dictum: what is said • Modus: how this is said • Dictum: This is a dull lecture. Modi: • I think that this is a dull lecture. • I believe that this is a dull lecture. • I know that this is a dull lecture. • I hope that this is a dull lecture. • I doubt that this is a dull lecture. • It must be a dull lecture. • …

9. Types of questions (Bally) • Interrogation dictale totale: What’s happening? – A lecture on semantics. • Interrogation dictale partielle: Where’s the lecture? – It’s in room S8. • Interrogation modale totale: Is the lecture happening? – Yes. / No. / Probably. • Interrogation modale partielle: Is this a lecture on semantics? – Yes. / No. / Probably.

10. Total modal questions • Is everything OK? – Yes. / *No./ No, my car broke. • Are you paying in crowns? – Yes. / *No. / No, in euros. • Does your son have black hair? – Yes. / *No. / No, red. • Do I look OK? – Yes. / *No. /No, your hair’s tousled. • Has anyone called me? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, your son. • Any news? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, the lecture’s cancelled. • Do you have a dream? – No. / *Yes. / Yes, I want to be an astronaut.

11. Types of anomalies • This are a lectures dull. • Charles University is situated in Moscow. • The capital of Czechoslovakia is Prague. • Mary’s husband is a bachelor. • Mary’s husband is married. • Mary’s husband is rainy. • Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. • Although Mary is 48, she already has 2 children.

12. Presupposition • Presupposition is a component of an utterance which, if it is false, makes the whole utterance anomalous. • The capital of Czechoslovakia is Prague. Presupposition: Czechoslovakia exists and has a capital. • He knows that Charles University is in Prague. • He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Prague. • He is surprised that Charles University is in Prague.Presupposition: Charles University is in Prague. • Open the door! Presupposition: the door is closed.

13. Presupposition and negation • He knows that Charles University is in Prague. • He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Prague. • *He knows that Charles University is in Moscow. • *He doesn’t know that Charles University is in Moscow. Presupposition: Charles University is in Prague. • He thinks that Charles University is in Prague. • He doesn’t think that Charles University is in Prague. • He thinks that Charles University is in Moscow. • He doesn’t think that Charles University is in Moscow. No presupposition.

14. Presupposition and assertion • Mary is John’s daughter. Assertion: John is Mary’s father. Presupposition: Mary is a girl. • Mary isn’t John’s daughter. Assertion: John isn’t Mary’s father. Presupposition: Mary is a girl. • *Peter is John’s daughter. Assertion: John is Peter’s father. Presupposition: Peter is a girl.

15. Communicative structure • V. Mathesius. O tak zvaném aktuálním členění větném // Cěstina a obecný jazykozpyt. Praha, 1947 • Actual analysis of sentences: theme (T) and rheme (R) • Petr (T) viděl Pavla(R). – Koho viděl Petr? ‘Peter (T) saw Paul (R). – Whom did Peter see?’ • Pavla (T) viděl Petr(R). – Kdo viděl Pavla?‘Peter (R) saw Paul (T). – Who saw Paul?’

16. Theme (topic) the part of a sentence that the whole sentence is about • In free word order languages (Russian, Czech, …), the topic usually comes first: • (Chto delaet mal’chik?) – Mal’chik (T) bezhit (R).‘(What does the boy do?) –The boy (T) is running (R).’ • (Kto aeto bezhit?) – Bezhit (T) mal’chik (R).‘(Who is running?) –A boy (R) is running (T).’ • In Japanese, the topic tends to be marked: • uindoozu wa (T) sugoi koutypu da si (R) ‘ As for Windows (T), it is terribly successful (R).’

17. Rheme (focus, comment) • In some languages, special constructions can mark the rheme: • It is Peter who saw Paul. • It is Paul whom Peter saw. • C’est Pierre qui a vu Paul. • C’est Paul que Pierre a vu. • The answer to a partial dictal question is generally the rheme: Where’s the lecture? – It’s (T) in room S8(R).

18. Rheme and exhaustive listing • ?German is spoken in Austria • ? Englishmen live in Essex • German is spoken in Germany • In Austria, German is spoken P. Sgall, E. Hajičová, J. Panevová, J. Mey, The meaning of the sentence in its semantic and pragmatic aspects, 1986

19. Given and new • Given (old) is the information that the Speaker believes to be known to the Hearer and active in his mind at the moment of the utterance. • New is the information that the Speaker believes to be unknown to the Hearer or absent in his mind before the utterance. • At the lecture on semantics (T, G) I fell asleep (R, N). • I entered Room S8. A lecture on semantics (T, New) was just starting (R) in the room (Given). • English language has articles. French (T, New) has them, too (R, Given).

20. Modal frames in explications • X managed to do P • ‘X did P’ [assertion] • ‘The speaker thought that X would fail to do P because P is difficult for X’ [modal frame] • EvenX did P • ‘X did P; some others also did P’ [assertion] • ‘The speaker did not expect that X would do P’ [modal frame] • OnlyX did P • ‘X did P; no one else did P’ [assertion] • ‘The speaker expected that someone else would also do P’ [modal frame]

21. Presuppositions in explications • Xfound 1P • ‘Before T, X was searching for P’ [presupposition] • ‘At T, Xdetermined the place where P was’ [assertion] • I found my watch • ‘I have been looking for my watch’ [presupposition] • ‘I determined where my watch was’ [assertion] • I did not find my watch • ‘I have been looking for my watch’ [presupposition] • ‘I did not determine where my watch was’ [assertion]

22. Presuppositions in explications • Xfound 2P • ‘Xunexpectedly saw P and took it’ [assertion] • I found a watch at the street • I did not find a watch at the street

23. Presuppositions in explications • Xvstretil1Y v Z‘X met Y in Z’ • ‘Y arrived to Z’ [presupposition] • ‘Xcame to Z; after that, X and Y were together for some time’ [assertion] • Ja vstretil druga na vokzale ‘I met my friend at the station’ • ‘My friend arrived at the station’ [presupposition] • ‘I came to the station’ [assertion] • Ja ne vstretil druga na vokzale ‘I did not meet my friend…’ • ‘My friend arrived at the station’ [presupposition] • ‘I did not come to the station’ [assertion]

24. Presuppositions in explications • Xvstretil2Y • ‘Xcame across Y’ [assertion] • Ja vstretil druga na ulice ‘I came across my friend at the street’ • Ja ne vstretil druga na ulice ‘I did not come across my friend at the street’

25. Properties of presuppositions • Presuppositions are impenetrable not only for the negation, but also for other kinds of lexical items: quantifiers, modifiers, modal verbs, estimates, etc. • He rarely finds what he loses ≠ ‘he rarely searches’ • He cannot find what he lost ≠ ‘he cannot search’

26. Thematic and rhematic words • Few is mostly the rheme: • Few students (R) came to the lecture (T). • Na lekciju prishlo (T) malo studentov (R). • A few can be the theme: • A few students (T) came later (R). • Neskol’ko studentov (T) prishlo pozzhe (R). • Once upon a time is mostly the theme: • Once upon a time (T), there was a king (R). • *There king was there (T) once upon a time (R).

27. Two meanings ofalone • X does P alone 1 ‘X does P; one could expect that someone else would do P simultaneously or together with X; no one else does P’ • Living alone [T] is difficult [R]. • He stands there [T] all alone [R]. • X alone 2 does P ‘X does P; there is no one else that does P’: only rhematic! • He alone [R] knows the truth [T].

28. Next lecture • Theoretical and practical lexicography. Types of dictionaries. Types of information in an explanatory dictionary.