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DEMO – I. Ali Jassim Alhashli Year II – Unit I (Man and His Environment). STATION – 1 (Autonomic Nervous System). The nervous system is classified to: Central Nervous System (CNS): which includes brain and spinal cord.
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DEMO –I Ali Jassim Alhashli Year II – Unit I (Man and His Environment)
STATION – 1 (Autonomic Nervous System) • The nervous system is classified to: • Central Nervous System (CNS): which includes brain and spinal cord. • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): which transport signals from an to the CNS and is further classified to: • Sensory component: including somatic nerves (for sensation of pain) and visceral nerves. • Motor component: including somatic nerves (for voluntary movements) and visceral nerves.
STATION – 1 (Autonomic Nervous System) • White ramus → pre-ganglionic fibers → myelinated (have myelin sheath around their axons thus appearing white due to the presence of fat in myelin). • Grey ramus→ post-ganglionic fibers → un-myelinated (do not have myelin sheath around their axons). • Sympathetic nerve fibers originate from: • T1 to L2/L3 (thoracolumbar origin). • Parasympathetic nerve fibers are: • CN III: oculomotor nerve. • CN VII: facial nerve. • CN IX: Glossopharyngeal nerve. • CN X:vagus nerve. • And also from S2, S3, S4 • (craniosacral origin).
In sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: • Ganglia: are collection of nerve cell bodies outside brain and spinal cord. • Nuclei: are collection of nerve cell bodies inside brain and spinal cord. • Sympathetic nervous system is activated for “fight-or-flight” response while parasympathetic nervous system is activated at rest condition. Effects of both systems on the body are explained in the table below. STATION – 1 (Autonomic Nervous System)
STATION – 1 (Autonomic Nervous System) • In sympathetic nervous system: • Sympathetic fibers synapse in paravertebral ganglia. • Or synapse in the prevertebral ganglia which is located near the major abdominal arteries: • Greater splanchnic nerve. • Lesser splanchnic nerve. • Least splanchnic nerve. • Or continuing as a white ramus without synapsing (example: adrenal gland medulla which functions as a sympathetic ganglia). • What is the difference between radiating and referred pain? • Radiating pain: extension of pain from original site to another site with persistence of pain at original site (e.g. penetration of duodenal ulcer posteriorly causes pain both in epigastrum and back; pancreatitis radiated to back). • Referred pain: pain is not felt at the site of disease but felt at a distant site (e.g. diaphragmatic irritation causes referred pain at the tip of shoulder through same segmental supply. Diaphragm (phrenic nerve C3, C4, C5); shoulder (cutaneous supply C5, C5).
STATION – 2 (Planes of Movement) • What are the planes of movement? • Sagittal plane: which is further divided into right and left sagittal planes. • Fontal (coronal) plane: which is further divided into anterior or posterior planes. • Transverse (horizontal) plane: which is further divided into upper and lower planes. • What are the axes of movement? • Sagittal axis: where sagittal and transverse planes meet. • Frontal axis: where frontal and transverse planes meet. • Vertical axis: where sagittal and frontal planes meet. Notice that both sagittal and frontal axes allow transverse movement.
STATION – 2 (Planes of Movement) • Types of movement: • Flexion/ extension: occurring on sagittal plane and frontal axis. • Abduction/ adduction: occurring on frontal plane and sagittal axis. • Rotatory movements: occurring on transverse plane and vertical axis. • Movements of the foot: • Inversion → inward movement. • Eversion → outward movement. Both of these movements occur on fontal plane and sagittal axis.
Explanation of some important body movements: • Flexion: • Decreases the angle of the joint. • Brings two bones closer together. • Typical of bending hinge joints (e.g. knee and elbow) or ball-and-socket joints (e.g. the hip). • Extension: • Opposite of flexion. • Increases the angle between two bones. • Typical of straightening the elbow or knee. • Extension beyond 180 is hyperextension. • Rotation: • Movement of a bone in vertical axis (e.g. shaking head “no”). • Abduction: • Moving limb away. • Adduction: • Moving limb toward. • Dorsiflexion: • Ankle movement/ instep up. • Plantar flexion: • Straighten ankle/ instep down. • Inversion: • Turning sole of foot medially. • Eversion: • Turning sole of foot laterally. STATION – 2 (Planes of Movement)
STATION – 2 (Planes of Movement) • Exceptions of movements (represented by thumb movements): • Flexion/ extension of the thumb: occurring on frontal plane and sagittal axis. This is similar to abduction/ adduction in other fingers of the hand. • Abduction/ adduction of the thumb: occurring on sagittal plane and frontal axis. This is similar to flexion/ extension in other fingers of the hand.
STATION – 2 (Planes of Movement) • Movements of the head: • When you rotate your head (to say “no”): you are using the atlanto-axial joint (a pivot joint). This movement occurs on the vertical axis and transverse plane. • When you nod your head (to say “yes”): you are using atlanto-occipital joint. This movement occurs on sagittal plane and frontal axis.
STATION – 3 (Joints of The Body) • Joint: it is an articulation between two adjacent bones. • Types of joints: • Fibrous joint: • Allows no movement (rigid). • Examples: sutures of the skull; between teeth and jaw. • Cartilaginous joint: • Characterized by the presence of cartilage over articulating ends of bones. • Classified to: • Primary cartilaginous: hyaline cartilage. • Secondary cartilaginous: two articulating ends covered by hyaline cartilage and connected by fibrous tissue. Examples include: intervertebral discs and pubic bones which are connected by pubic symphysis.
Types of joints (continued): • Synovial joint: • Freely movable. • There are four criteria to classify a joint as “synovial”: • The two end of articulating bones are covered with hyaline cartilage. • There is synovial fluid filling the cavity → acts as a lubricant and absorbs shock. • The joint has a synovial membrane. • The joint is covered by a fibrous capsule. • Subtypes of synovial joint: • Flat: plain synovial joints; articulating ends of the joint are plain; example: tarsal joints in the foot. • Ball-and-socket: one articulating end is concave while the other is convex; examples: shoulder and hip joints. • Hinge: allowing movement only in one axis; example: elbow joint (allowing only flexion/ extension). • Saddle: allowing bi-axial movement; example: carpo-metacarpal joint (between carpal bone and first metacarpal bone in the thumb). • Elepsoid. • Condyloid: example: metacarpophalangeal joint. • Pivot: allowing movement only in one axis; example: superior radio-ulnar joint (between radius and ulna). STATION – 3 (Joints of The Body)
STATION – 4 (Basic Tissues of The Body) • There are four basic tissues in the body: Epithelium, connective tissue muscle tissue and nervous tissue. • Epithelium (being most important): • Types: • Simple epithelium: • Simple squamous epithelium: endothelium of blood vessels. • Simple cuboidal epithelium: those which are lining kidney tubules. • Simple columnar epithelium: some have cilia while other have microvilli and are found in GIT. • Stratified epithelium: • Notice that the respiratory epithelium is considered to be “pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells”. • Stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium: vagina, esopahagus, anus and cervix. • Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium: epidermis of palm of the hand and sole of the foot. • Transitional epithelium (urothelium: found in the urinary tract): when not stretched → superficial layer is cuboidal; when stretched → superficial layer becomes squamous and irregular. • The basal membrane is composed of type-IV collagen and it separates the epithelium from the underlying connective tissue. • Arrangement of cilia: 9+2 • Arrangement of basal body: 9x3 (like spindles).
STATION – 4 (Basic Tissues of The Body) • Connective Tissue (CT): • Loose CT: it is considered to be the most important type because it has all the components of a CT: • Cells: from 9-11 (most important are fibroblasts). • Extracellular matrix. • Fibers: there are three types: • Collagen fibers: tough, thick, do not branch and most abundant. • Elastic fibers: thin, small, branching and containing elastin. • Reticular fibers: form a delicate network in spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow, lungs and liver. • Dense irregular CT: • Collagen fibers and fibroblasts (arranged irregularly). • Found in the skin dermis. • Dense regular CT: • Found in tendons (NOT in muscles!). • Reticular CT: • Detected only by a special silver stain. • Found in: liver, lung, spleen, bone marrow and lymph nodes. • Adipose tissue: • Mostly fat cells which are found in the hypodermis.
